The first Aichi target has two main outcomes. First that Palestinian individuals should be familiarized with the critical value of biodiversity and second that they should take into consideration how to conserve biodiversity and sustain it. It is expected that a large proportion of people must be aware of these aspects extending from adults to students (universities and schools) by implementing the biodiversity concepts within their curricula. The strategy used to familiarize people with the importance of biodiversity and its sustainability was the National Strategy for Environmental Awareness and Education which has three main objectives: 

• The creation of an environmental media to raise the level of environmental awareness. 
• The introduction of effective and creative educational curricula and activities. 
• The enhancement of modern concepts in environmental values and practices. Below we will summarize achievements in this target 2015-2020 under the categories of governmental, NGOs and Academia.

Governmental: In EQA, two divisions are in charge in public awareness and education; Division of Awareness and Division of Education. School children across the West Bank are main targeted group for most of the educational programs. EQA produced a “Communication, Education and Public Awareness Strategy (CEPA)” in 2014 with efforts directed at 1) Effective and active environmental Media in raising the level of environmental awareness; 2) An integrated and innovative educational activities methodologies, and  educational curricula; and 3) Environmental upscale values and practiced by community groups. The General Directorate for Environmental Awareness and Education at EQA is responsible for integrating environmental concepts and the development of Palestinian curricula. However, integrating the concepts of nature protection and environmental education within the educational matrix was not achieved yet. Within EQA's General Directorate for Environmental Awareness there is the Environmental Awareness Division: which is the most active division with offices in Hebron, Bethlehem, Jenin, Nablus, Tulkarm, and small offices in Tubas and Salfit. 400 Environmental Clubs were established in schools across the West Bank and they communicate with each other via social media (Facebook). These school clubs are supported and encouraged to develop small environmentally friendly projects such as biogas, botanic and house gardens, composting, water reuse, etc. Furthermore, nine videos were prepared on various subjects such as biodiversity, water issues, desertification, the environment and pollution. Other activities include summer camps for school students, walking in natural trails and identifying plants and birds. A number of other publications were issued such as “Garden is a Friend of the Environment” stories for school children with emphasis on environmental concepts and a national strategy for environmental education. The Ministry of Agriculture also produced some awareness pamphlets and occasionally worked with schools on educational issues. However, work with the Ministry of Education to change its curriculum has had limited success. The 9th grade syllabus “Health and Environment in our Life” includes some good concepts like better managing resources like water and reducing waste. The EQA organized events on 11 relevant days in 2020 (like world environment day, Arab environment day, Palestine environment day, biodiversity day). Over 5000 citizens engaged in activities done by EQA in 2020 (highest in Ramallah and Bethlehem). Also reached 3564 students and 901 teachers in schools and universities in 2020

NGOs: The EQA and academia work in collaboration with NGOs (such as Biodiversity and Environment Research Center-BERC, MAAN Development Center-MDC, Palestine Wildlife Society-PWLS, and Applied Research Institute-Jerusalem-ARIJ, among others) to reach out to schools to integrate some concepts of environmental education both in the classrooms and in extracurricular activities. Work from some of those groups to help the Ministry of Education change its curriculum has had limited success. The 9th grade in class syllabus “Health and Environment in our Life” includes some good concepts like better managing resources like water and waste reducing and recycling. NGOs we spoke with told us they are proud to have helped environmental clubs and other environmental initiatives at schools. Environmental clubs are indeed now found in many schools in Palestine. There was more of those in the private schools than in the public schools (e.g. in Bethlehem all private schools had an environment club while only a small fraction of public schools have them). This is largely due to lack of support and encouragement. Some schools started environmental magazines and/or newsletters focused on the environment such as at the Evangelical Lutheran Schools (Environment Education Center). Many folded because of lack of funds but these initiatives could be supported to increase outreach and imprint conservation and environmental issues among school children. Details on the role of Department of Environmental Education and Awareness at EQA. Awareness is also evident via the formation of new formal (like NGOs) and informal groups since the last NR. For example, there is a new NGO called Nature Palestine (https://naturepalestine.org/) and there is an informal network that started in 2019 called Palestine Action for the Planet (https://www.palestinenature.org/palestine-action-for-the-planet/). There's also a Palestine Environment NGO Network (http://www.pengon.org/) that coordinates activities in over 15 NGOs including on issues of education. And a first conference for Environmental Journalism was held (see https://www.maan-ctr.org/magazine/article/2449/  ) and it revealed that there is much to improve in this area despite previous accomplishments. Workshop educating children about caring for Palestine's biodiversity:  https://www.lutheranworld.org/news/preparing-young-palestinians-care-creation Under the patronage of the Prime minister Dr. Mohammad Shtayyeh the first environmental exhibition for the biodiversity funded by Hanns Seidel Foundation through the "Mahmiyat.ps" project took place in the Nativity church square on the 30th of September 2020 that includes 200 pictures (posters on stands) plus tables for NGOs and academic centers engaged in nature protection. This exhibition was the result of joint efforts in which members of the local community and the Environment Quality Authority participated, who are the main partner in the exhibition. Around 400 people visited the exhibition. A video was developed for those who couldn’t reach Bethlehem due to the pandemic and was distributed online. Another NGO led activities are ecotourism paths that took thousands of people locals and internationals across landscape of Palestine including protected areas. An example of this is Palestine Trail (phtrail.org). 

Academia: Issues on water and environment courses are taught in five universities (of 13 total in the Occupied Palestinian Territories-OPTs) and only 2.5% of master students studied environmental sciences (Isaac et al. 2019) but this has been growing over the years (e.g. a new master in environmental studies at Birzeit for example was launched in 2015). Bethlehem University via its Museum of Natural History worked with Qattan Foundation to bring hundreds of School students to a science festivals that focused on their responsibility to the environment. Efforts were made in collaboration with NGOs (such as ARIJ, BERC, MDC, and PWLS) and educational centers (such as EEC) to integrate some concepts of environmental education both in the classrooms and in extracurricular activities. In 2019, PMNH also held a total of five workshops in the villages that surround Al Makhrour valley (Beit Jala, Hussan, Battir, and Al-Walaja), whose aim was to increase the environmental educational awareness of the students in schools e.g.  https://almakhrour.palestinenature.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Educational-Awareness-Workshops.pdf PMNH/PIBS engaged in hundreds of education activities relating to biodiversity (see palestinenature.org/education). Some universities also did environmental education via science festivals and direct school involvement. Furthermore, there are many undergraduate programs related to environmental sciences at the Palestinian universities. For example, Al-Najah university has established undergraduate programs related to the environment. Also, Hebron University offers a B. Sc. program in Environmental Science and Technology, while Al Quds University has a program in Earth & Environmental Sciences, with courses dealing with biodiversity. With a total of 9 universities who established directly environmental B.Sc. programs or indirect by adding courses related to environment in the Palestinian curriculum.

There are also many programs and courses for higher education related to Environment in Palestine, where at Birzeit University, three graduate programs are offered; Environmental Biology, Water and Environmental Sciences  and Water and Environmental Engineering programs, especially the vital course in Conservation Biology and Environmental Legislations & Ethics. Similarly, the graduate program at Hebron University offers several environmental courses such as (Wildlife Management, Conservation & Monitoring of Natural Resources, Economic of Environmental Resources and Forest Improvement & Development). Efforts should be invested in upgrading these courses, by training, inviting visiting professors from countries with experience, exchange programs for students, and more programs (Masters and PhDs) that need to be incorporated in our universities.  The biotechnology field and its biosafety in Palestine is still in its early developmental stages, with minor efforts to catch up with the rapidly developing area of biotechnology, especially in the fields of food, medicine and agriculture. However, several universities have recently established graduate and undergraduate biotechnology/genetic engineering programs (Unpublished, Palestine Biosafety assessment Report 2021, EQA). There's a plan to introduce a master program in biodiversity and sustainability at Bethlehem University 2021. 

Other: Environmental education and awareness reaches the public in many other ways. Environmental (e.g. Maan Centers media outlet Afaq albiy'aa wa Altanmiya) and social, media play a great role. Tools used include audio, videos, magazines, newsletters, journals, webpages and internet shows. For instance, “This Week in Palestine”, a monthly-published magazine, highlights major environmental topics some of which include: fauna, flora, ecotourism and the environment. Examples of such issues were 2016 issue 220 “Animals in Palestine”, 2018 issue 244 “Hiking Trails and Alternative Tourism”, 2018 issue 243 “Sustainable Gaza”, 2021 issue 276 “Our Environment”. There are also >20 Facebook pages that actively post on topics relating to biodiversity in Palestine, which also contributes to public awareness. Examples include https://www.facebook.com/environment.quality.authority and https://www.facebook.com/PIBS.PMNH.

Conclusion: There have been a number of active movements raising awareness across Palestine including government bodies, academics, NGOs, and the voluntary individual actors. Taken together, all these movements suggest progress towards the target, as monitoring surveys and follow-up surveys document. PIBS conducted a public survey to estimate the public's general knowledge regarding biodiversity and protected areas in Palestine. Based upon a survey of 50 people, 46% claimed to have great knowledge regarding biodiversity, 50% claimed to have limited knowledge, and 2% claimed having no knowledge regarding biodiversity at all. When asked about possible ways to increase environmental awareness in Palestine, the two most popular answers were 1) introducing more environmental-related curriculums in schools and universities, and 2) discussing environmental topics and issues on media platforms.

References:

EQA 2010. Environment Sector Strategy, Executive Summary. Environment Quality Authority.  http://environment.pna.ps/ar/files/Environment%20Sector%20Strategy_Executive%20Summary_en.pdf

EQA 2012. The National Strategy, Action Programme & Integrated Financing Strategy to Combat Desertification in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. https://environment.pna.ps/ar/files/The_National_Strategy_to_Combat_Desertification.pdfEQA 2015. The Fifth National Report - Palestine. Environment Quality Authority.  https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ps/ps-nr-05-en.pdf

EQA 2015. The Fifth National Report - Palestine. Environment Quality Authority.  https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ps/ps-nr-05-en.pdf

MEnA (Ministry of Environmental Affairs) 1999. Palestinian Environmental Strategy Main Report.

MEnA (Ministry of Environmental Affairs). 2000. Gaza Coastal and Marine Environmental Protection and Management Plan.

MOPAD (Ministry of Planning and Administrative Development) 2014. State of Palestine National Development Plan 2014-2016. http://www.mopad.pna.ps/en/images/PDFs/Palestine%20State_final.pdf

SP 2016. National Policy Agenda 2017-22.  https://gerusalemme.aics.gov.it/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/National-Policy-Agenda_final.pdf

UNEP (UN Environment Program) 2003. Desk Study On The Environment In The Occupied Palestinian Territories. Http://Www.Unep.Org/Download_File.Multilingual.Asp?Fileid=105.

We review here issues like national policies and relevant other targets.  Palestine divided its National Policy Agenda into four major sectors: governance, social, economic and infrastructure. The infrastructure sector is subdivided into: energy, environment, housing, transportation, and water and wastewater management subsectors. The environment was given priority (MOPAD, 2014). In the last two decades, action programs and strategies proliferated. The National Strategy, Action Programme and Integrated Financing Strategy to Combat Desertification in the Occupied Palestinian Territory proposed “to prevent, halt and where possible, reverse the effects and impact of desertification, land degradation and droughts, in order to contribute to poverty alleviation, improve livelihoods of people and achieve Sustainable Development” (EQA 2012).  The strategy has identified five priority projects that should be complementary to what has been identified in the NDP for the years 2011-2013, in the sum of USD 4.2 million, with lead agency as EQA in cooperation with other Palestinian stakeholders, including non-governmental and private sector. The main causes of soil pollution were summarized in the environmental strategy (MoEA, 2000) as: increased desertification and soil erosion, soil pollution due to mismanagement of liquids and solid waste, natural and manmade soil erosion, and soil pollution caused by Israeli occupation military activities. This strategy is a promising tool to improve and enhance agricultural productivity through the conservation and improvement of agricultural soil fertility.  Moreover, it is considered an effective mainstreaming strategy for biodiversity and protected areas conservation and development. These were the beginnings and much more work has since been done especially after Palestine signed treaties like CBD.  

Also Palestine has signed international treaties, and has developed strategies and action plans related to the environment, including biodiversity issues. Palestine was not listed at CBD as having NBSAP (https://www.cbd.int/nbsap/about/latest/) because the NBSAP was developed in 1999 before accession to the treaty. The NBSAP 1999 was immediately followed with the Palestinian Environmental Strategy (MoEA 2000). To quote “The goal of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Palestine (NBSAP) is to aim at nothing less than the restoration and rehabilitation of Palestine’s diversity of species, genetic resources and the ecosystems in which they can flourish.” EQA published an Environment Sector Strategy in 2010 that included a SWOT analysis and identified six national priorities (EQA 2010). The most recent report (EQA, 2015) from the state of Palestine in compliance with CBD had the same priorities as the NBSAP (1999). The PNA developed a ten-year environmental strategy for 2000–2010 and in August 2000 a National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) for plans and projects for the three-year period 2000-2002. 

In 2015 besides CBD, Palestine signed a number of other conventions related to environment and biodiversity (Cartagena, UNFCC, UNFCCD, Basel Convention among others). Accession to a treaty or convention by the state carries significant legal and other obligations (Jaradat and Awad-Allah, 2015). As the main instrument for implementing the Convention, the NBSAPs are referenced in several COP decisions, pertaining to thematic areas, cross-cutting issues and stakeholder processes, indicating those areas that Parties have suggested should be included in NBSAPs. The main COP decisions that provide direct guidance for NBSAPs are decision IX/8 and decision X/2. Parties are encouraged to review these decisions for consolidated guidance on the NBSAP process, substance, components, support systems, and monitoring and review systems. Since the last Palestinian NBSAP published in the year 1999 (http://environment.pna.ps/ar/files/National%20Biodiversity%20Strategy%20And%20Action%20Plan%20For%20 Palestine .pdf) much has changed including new threats to biodiversity, new opportunities, updated methodologies and data are now being unincorporated into a new NBSAP for Palestine (due in 2022).

Table: Priorities of the environmental strategy (UNEP, 2003) were based on needs for the WB and Gaza strip:

The 2017-2022 National Policy Agenda focuses on democracy and putting citizens first. It is people centered and has a little bit of resource allocation and very little on the environment (SP 2016). This document has three Pillars, the first is Path to independence, and the second is Governmental Reform, while the third is Sustainable Development. Under the third pillar, there is a section on Resilient Communities. This section contains five policies related to ensuring a better environment.

Table: National Policies and policy interventions under National Priority 10.

Most Palestinian organizations and institutions dealing with the environment have missions that focus on responsible human interactions with nature and hence protection of biodiversity. Noteworthy among them are governmental agencies (like the Environment Quality Authority), NGOs (like The Applied Research Institute - Jerusalem (ARIJ), Land Research Institute, Palestine Wildlife Society, Union of Agricultural Work Committees, Biodiversity & Environmental Research Center-BERC), international agencies (like Hanns Seidel Foundation), academic centers (like at Bethlehem University, Al-Najah University, Al-Quds University, Islamic University of Gaza). Many also view their functions as important forms of Sumood (resilience/persistence) in the face of the Israeli occupation. Their programs at all levels (national and local governments, communities, academia) are reflected in policies and procedures that produced results on the ground. 

The current EQA (http://environment.pna.ps/ar/) had the responsibility to develop legislations, strategies and policies for the Palestinian Authority system, in the context of overall environmental policy development in the West Bank. It is linked directly with the Ministerial Council. The EQA is responsible for implementing all articles in the Environmental Law for the Year 1999. In 2010, the EQA developed a three year strategy for 2011-2013 that identified and prioritized objectives for itself and for the Palestinian environment as a whole (EQA, 2010). EQA put 48 specific objectives, of which the following seven objective are among them: Issuing legal and other directives; Issuing information bulletins and statistical and other data information; Building human capacity at EQA; Documenting Israeli violations of the Palestinian Environment; Founding of an environmental information center which issues regular reports; Review and modernize the Palestinian Environmental Laws; Review and evaluate institutional structures related to the environment

However, the EQA suffers generally from the lack of human and financial resources to perform the overwhelming duties under the current stressful political conditions.

Figure: Structure of EQA

As demonstrated, the General Directorate of Environmental Resources is the main body responsible for preparation of studies on biodiversity (Fauna and Flora), and cooperates in protecting protected areas. One important function of EQA is to monitor the NGOs environmentally related issues through the Law of Charitable Organizations and National Authorities for the year 2000. Within the Environmental Protection  section, a number of environmental inspectors are responsible for inspecting sites with environmental problems such as pollution, water resources etc. so as to implement the Environmental Law. Other sections such as the Marine & Coastal Environment and Water Quality are involved with monitoring such resources. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIAs) and how it is done in Palestine needs strengthening. 

Conclusion: The EQA is the main body responsible for translating knowledge to policies in cooperation with other governmental agencies, NGOs and academia. Significant progress in fulfilling this ABT target occurred between 2015 to 2020 but we think much more will be done in 2021-2022 driven by four current projects: revision of the 1999 NBSAP for Palestine (2021-2022), a national biosafety plan (almost finished 2021), revision and updating of local environmental laws in compliance and harmonization with signed conventions and signing other international conventions (2021), and the assessment and strengthening program for a national network of protected areas (starting in 2021). However, there has been little integration of biodiversity values in the mainstream society. This should be addressed in the upcoming revision of the NBSAP. 

References

EQA 2010. Environment Sector Strategy, Executive Summary. Environment Quality Authority.  http://environment.pna.ps/ar/files/Environment%20Sector%20Strategy_Executive%20Summary_en.pdf

EQA 2012. The National Strategy, Action Programme & Integrated Financing Strategy to Combat Desertification in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. https://environment.pna.ps/ar/files/The_National_Strategy_to_Combat_Desertification.pdfEQA 2015. The Fifth National Report - Palestine. Environment Quality Authority.  https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ps/ps-nr-05-en.pdf

Jaradat, T. & Awad Allah, O. 2015. Legal Implications Of Accession Of The State Of Palestine To International Conventions On Resources And Protection Of Natural Resources [In Arabic] http://Dspace.Up.Edu.Ps/Xmlui/Handle/123456789/139

MEnA (Ministry of Environmental Affairs) 1999. Palestinian Environmental Strategy Main Report.

MEnA (Ministry of Environmental Affairs). 2000. Gaza Coastal and Marine Environmental Protection and Management Plan.

MOPAD (Ministry of Planning and Administrative Development) 2014. State of Palestine National Development Plan 2014-2016. http://www.mopad.pna.ps/en/images/PDFs/Palestine%20State_final.pdf

SP 2016. National Policy Agenda 2017-22. 

UNEP (UN Environment Program) 2003. Desk Study On The Environment In The Occupied Palestinian Territories. Http://Www.Unep.Org/Download_File.Multilingual.Asp?Fileid=105.

Aichi target 3 has two main objectives: first the removal, phasing out or the alternation of harmful incentives. Second, the development and application of positive incentives. Measuring the progress depends upon whether the relevant actions have been taken. There are some programs of providing seedlings and seeds that result in greening Palestine including of wild plants (such as rare and endangered species like hawthorns and summak). Such facilitation can be considered an incentive for the local people. There are also a number of projects that involves providing awards for citizens who engage in environmental work. Examples include awards for best photographs, amount of planted trees, and recognition of environmental educators. 

Since Palestine is a developing country it has several obstacles and hindrances in its current solid waste management (SWM) field. The main goals behind recycling are to minimize the quantity of landfilled waste, to provide raw materials, and to sustain environment for future generations. Implementing any recycle program shall be successful only by the active participation of the public. Kattoua et al. (2019) have examined the main barriers that hinder the achievement of a local recycling program in Ramallah and Al-Bireh district of Palestine. They have detected that the main barriers halting the public from participating in the local recycling system are the following:

• Lack of awareness

• Lack of official recycling programs

• Lack of information on the process of separation and storage

• Lack of municipal authorities’ encouragement

• Limited available facilities in the municipality or nearby

• Limited capacity of existing facilities

• Lack of knowledge on waste segregation processes

There is a clear sign of absence of the concept of waste minimization at source, recycling, and composting, since Palestinian experience in this field is still limited. As recycling processes are performed informally in Palestine at minimal rate less than 1% of the waste generated. There are no official recycling programs; a private company has contracts with several municipalities, commercial companies, and institutions (e.g., universities) for the collection of segregated paper and cardboard. Then, the recyclables are routed to Israel, where they are sold to another private company as a raw material. Only some NGOs conduct awareness campaigns about recycling and compost and practice in a limited scale.

The idea of recycling is still new to the Palestinian society. There are some scattered activities, but it is still not a culture, nor a high-level investment; the Ministry of Local Government and the Environment Quality Authority are aiming at spreading awareness and target the creation of strategic recycling practices. Enhancing recycling is an important environmental action that should be taken into consideration in the enactment of future legislation and strategic planning at different decision-making levels within the Palestinian Territories.

there is urgent need to change citizens’ underlying unwillingness to recycle. A mix of actions is required including legislation and policy revision, setting of new incentives, development of related infrastructure, environmental education so as to encourage citizens to cooperate in the three R's (reduce, reuse, Recycle). Moreover, the budgets assigned for SWM need to be increased and public awareness regarding SWM problems has to be raised (Al-Khatib et al. 2007). Moreover, the readiness of the public to pay for waste management services have a direct effect on the success and reliability of any SWM system (Afroz et al. 2011).

Due to the dilemmas in SWM field within Palestine. Saadeh et al, 2019 have conducted a study upon 12 Joint Service Councils (JSCs) for solid waste management. On one hand, only two of them revealed their acquisition of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) contract for the management and operation of the transfer station and the sanitary landfill. On the other hand, two JSCs are currently making arrangements and implementing studies for future PPPs on waste-to-energy, biowaste management and recycling projects. As a terrible scenario in implementing a recycling project was Jenin and Tubas Joint Service Council (JSC) who had 3-month-duration PPP contract which had failed to achieve its objectives. As any sustainable system depends upon the current financial resources and collaborative aid from citizens. The best measure to ensure that sustainability can be accomplished once the government-represented by the Ministry of Local Government (MoLG)-is involved; providing legal support to local authorities and incentives to potential contractors in order to encourage them to join PPPs. The best policies to achieve PPPs are by updating and reforming current incentives, laws and regulations, also by facilitating licensing procedure and activating the Investment Promotion Law.

Moreover, the involvement of the private sector in SWM in parallel with incentives to inspire investments in order to develop collection, sorting and recycling schemes and marketing of reusable and recycled materials could be one of the effective perspectives to improve SWM.

Disincentives come from issues like penalties for pollution and implementation of both local laws and signed international agreements and conventions that hinder locals from engaging in harmful practices. There is a review of local laws and regulations of signed conventions, besides the initiative of signing new conventions (Tender by EQA and bid won by Al-Theqa legal firm in partnership with both local and international legal and environmental experts). Generally the review shows good correspondence (data forthcoming) but the issue of enforcement remains weak. From the 5th NR (EQA 2015) there has been increased enforcement with creation and deploying green police (Part of the security forces) who work closely with the EQA. Call response times have improved over the past three years. For example there was confiscation of over 200 wild animals from hunters and from pet shops. These are then sent to animal rehabilitation centers such as the new one (opened 2018) at PIBS-BU. 

Incentives are a different issue and need further development. For example, Jerusalem District Electricity Company Ltd has developed complicated (bureaucratically) regulations to install solar panels. Any solar power which is generated in excess of need is used by the Electric Company which then provides some credit for it. However, there are no incentives or disincentives to reduce use of plastics. There remains personal education and personal incentives or institutional issues that need extra work upon them. For example, the permaculture farms producing organic eco-friendly produce do it as an internally incentivized process. Progress is assessed as insufficient because the country of Palestine faces an ongoing decline of farmland, forests due to Israeli occupation which could affect the target if land of high biodiversity value is halved, suggesting that positive incentives must be developed more effectively.

Another example of issues of incentives is that a factory in Hebron started recycling tires to produce floor matting for use in places like children playground. However, there was lack of demand and the factory shut down. It would be good in future planning to do increase campaigns of awareness (see ABT1) to include such issues.

The main body responsible for both licensing new facilities to ensure compliance and also for enforcing existing laws is the Environment Quality Authority (EQA). Enforcement has improved significantly in the five years of this report. For example, despite the pandemic, in 2020 the EQA accepted 90 projects and rejected 46 ones, performed >450 inspection rounds by EQA teams, acquired >150 environmental complaints and dealt with many turned over for legal action (https://bit.ly/3uoQSHp). These numbers are more than double those reported annually in the fifth national report.  There was proliferation of wireless communication and the EQA approved 82 environmental applications for Jawwal and 80 for Ooredo (mobile phone networks). In 2020, the EQA appointed 10 new inspectors and bought two 4-wheel drive vehicles and equipment needed to strengthen inspections. 

Conclusion: We do see a deficiency in areas of providing positive (enforcement) incentives for eco-friendly practices and negative icentives for destructive ones in Palestine and we propose to add this in the new NBSAP being worked on now. Further, much more work is needed in public-private partnerships that enhance environmental/biodiversity conservation via incentives for good practices (Saadeh et al. 2009).

References

Al-Khatib, I., Arafat, H., Basheer, T., Shawahneh, H., Salahat, A., Eid, J., & Ali, W. (2007). Trends and problems of solid waste management in developing countries: a case study in seven Palestinian districts. Waste Management, 27, 1910–1919.

Afroz, R., Tudin, R., Hanaki, K., & Masud, M. M. (2011). Selected socio-economic factors affecting the willingness to minimize solid waste in Dhaka city, Bangladesh. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 54(6), 711–731.

EQA 2015. The Fifth National Report - Palestine. Environment Quality Authority. https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ps/ps-nr-05-en.pdf

Kattoua, M. G., Al-Khatib, I. A., & Kontogianni, S. (2019). Barriers on the propagation of household solid waste recycling practices in developing countries: State of Palestine example. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management. doi:10.1007/s10163-019-00833-5

Saadeh, D., A. Al-Khatib, I. A., Kontogianni, S. (2019). Public–private partnership in solid waste management sector in the West Bank of Palestine. Environ Monit Assess. DOI: 10.1007/s10661-019-7395-2

The natural resources of the state of Palestine include water, habitats like forests and rangelands, mineral resources, and wildlife. There are many policies, laws and regulations about natural resources in the state of Palestine. For example, the Law on Natural Resources No. (1) of 1999. Article (6) under this Law provides that found natural resources within the Palestinian territories, territorial waters and its pure economic zone should be regarded as a public property except for the building materials. It shall be permissible for mining purposes, to appropriate the private lands for public benefit.” Also, The National Strategy, Action Programme & Integrated Financing Strategy to Combat Desertification in the Occupied Palestinian Territory has identified four strategic objectives (EQA 2012) and one of them is: "Conservation and sustainable use of natural resources". There is yet to be well documented surveys of all these natural resources though some data exist. While the state of Palestine needs to develop better plans for managing the resources, a big impediment to implementation of the many existing plans (e.g. for water resources) stems from the fact that the State essentially has no control over most of its natural resources (due to the Israeli occupation). The report by the UNEP (2003) made over 100 recommendations to address the environment in Palestine and seven of them deal with natural resources (1, 2, 3, 4, 21, 23, 31, 40) but none could be implemented without having sovereignty over our land and resources. Further, the Israeli occupation is one of causes of habitat destruction leading to a decline in the biodiversity of Palestine. There are many ways how Israeli occupation affects the Palestinian nature and natural resources (ARIJ, 2007, 2015).

Figure The organic relationship existing between environmental degradation in the State of Palestine and the Israeli Occupation ARIJ, 2007

In 2005, the last Millennium Development Goals (MDG) was published by the Palestinian National MDG Steering Committee, led by the Ministry of Planning of the Palestinian Authority. In its remarkable honesty, it states that the targets for 2015 for sustainability and environmental issues will not be reached because of: “lack of control over natural resources, particularly water and land, due to occupation, and early stage of environmental protection.” There are very few biologists especially marine and wildlife biologists and taxonomists, oceanographers, conservation managers, etc., an adequate legal frameworks and environmental policy and legal framework on which to base all activities for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and natural resources in Palestine. Furthermore, there are inadequate enforcement of laws, and weak coordination among national and local stakeholder agencies in biodiversity and inadequate awareness and commitment to biodiversity. There is a UN General Assembly Resolution regarding Palestine's control over its natural resources (A/RES/75/236). Examples of natural resources and their management issues are listed below:

• Dead Sea Resources: The Dead Sea is the lowest point on earth and its area falls under Israel, Jordan and Palestine. It has significant touristic and other values like minerals. It is also fed by the Jordan River and springs like Ain Al-Fashkha (a protected area). The Part of the Dead Sea that supposed to be part of the State of Palestine is under Israeli occupation (the whole state is under occupation). Contrary to the 4th Geneva Convention, its resources are being utilized by the State of Israel (Al-Haq 2012). 
• Water Resources: Palestine is rich in water resources. The rainfall feeds into four major aquifers and there are dozens of springs in the West Bank. There is a National Water Sector Strategic Plan and Action Plan (2017-2022) which identifies issues, and sets objectives to improve the sector. Some strategic Goals and Objectives to be reached: first, the integrated management and sustainable development of the water resources (quantitatively and qualitatively). Secondly, improving the quality and reliability of water supply services by ensuring fair water distribution. Thirdly, by improving wastewater services and structure. Fourthly by the development of Water Sector institutions to reinforce Good Governance bases. And last but not least, by ensuring the financial sustainability of water utilities and water service providers. The National Water Sector Strategic Plan and Action Plan (2017-2022) was adopted (PWA 2016). This strategy identifies issues, and sets objectives to improve the sector. Below are two tables with the issues and objectives reached.

Figure: Daily consumption rate of water is low and highly effected by Israeli theft of Palestinian water (Unequal distribution) (SP 2020)

Table: Water Sector Priority Issues (PWA 2016)

Table: Water Sector SDP (2017-2022) Objectives (PWA 2016)

However, all these great plans are contingent on being allowed to be implemented by the occupying power (the State of Israel). For example,  the second Israeli Military Order issued immediately after the occupation (issued 7 June 1967) designated all water resources in the newly occupied Palestinian Territories as “state owned by Israel” (UNEP, 2003). 

• Forests and other natural resources: See the other ABTs that cover protected areas and forested areas as natural resources. The coverage of the forests in Palestine was explained in the 5th NR to CBD. In the section for ABT 11, we noted that much of the protected area natural resources are made inaccessible because of the Israeli occupation (which should be the responsibility of the Palestinian EQA and MoA). The Directorate for Forests, Rangelands and Wildlife has offices in all governorates of the West Bank. Forty rangers are responsible for inspecting and patrolling the protected areas and the natural forests throughout the areas under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). Of the 19 protected areas that were handed over to the Palestinian Authority under the Oslo agreement, only eight are under the actual control of MoA, amounting to less than 15 sq km. The remaining 10 are within area C or overlapped areas. A pamphlet released by the Department of Nature Reserves, Ministry of Agriculture, includes a list of 48 protected areas, and these are discussed in the section on protected areas.

Table: Amount of Timber Production from Forests in Palestine by Governorate and Year, 2017 - 2018 (unit: tons) (PCBS data)

Palestine is located between Europe, Asia and Africa with an area of 27,000 km2 (West Bank: 5,879 km2, Gaza: 378 km2) (UNEP 2003) and belongs to the African Tectonic plate which as a result of the plate collision resulted in having the northern part of the great Rift Valley located here (including the lowest point on earth at the Dead Sea).  Palestine is also the western part of the Fertile Crescent where humans first developed agriculture (Qumsiyeh, 1996). Its unique geography and geology gave Palestine more biological diversity than some countries ten times its size. The diverse habitats cover five ecozones: the central highlands, the semi-coastal region, the eastern slope, the Jordan valley and the coastal region. Palestine also spans five phyto/bio- geographical regions (Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, Saharo-Arabia, Coastal, and Sudanese). The total wooded areas in the State of Palestine in 1974 was 314,713 dunums (5.2% of the land mass) of which 209,510  dunums are naturally wooded (Abu Ayyash et al. 2007). This decreased by 29% from 1974 to 2007. Data is limited on further decline (see below). Like in other countries, decline stems from population growth, the industrial revolution and the consumerist society that developed leaving us with legacies like climate change and habitat destruction. Yet in our case, there is added pressure such as from political instability and the Israeli occupation. 

Figure There was a significant loss of forest areas in State of Palestine due mostly to urban development (SP 2020b)

Figure Causes of loss of forests (SP 2020b).

Figure Forest area as a percentage of State of Palestine. (SP 2020b)

After the 5th National report Palestine improved its conservation efforts especially in Protected areas. The protected areas in Palestine account for 515 km2 and the total area of WB and Gaza is 6,020 km2 so that is about 9% of the State of Palestine. There are areas like Wadi Al Makhrour, Wadi Janata, Wadi Zarka Ulwi, Jinsafut in Wadi Qana, Faku’a village, and Wadi Quff that fared well (see ABT 11).

Figure Coverage of protected areas of important sites for mountain biodiversity (SP 2020b)

Figure Mountain green cover index (SP 2020b)

After writing the cross-sectoral strategy (EQA 2017) the Palestinian Government committed resources and experts to increase environmental awareness and find funds to work on study and conserve the environment. 

Conservation Plans were applied to increase the environmental knowledge between school students all over the West Bank and Applied by many NGOs and Academics organizations (https://drive.google.com/file/d/1CIjrbFpJM-KsP8E9rFK2xFzqpFsOZ24M/view?usp=sharing) to increase awareness and decrease the damage to natural habitats. In Palestinian and Arab culture there are elements that can enhance protections. Galaty & Johnson (1990) explained the idea of Hima -- a communal property system developed by the nomadic pastoralists in the Middle East and North Africa but it was used widely by non-pastoralists as well. It restricted and regulated the use of lands for grazing, provided areas for use during droughts, and maintained the productivity of the range lands. Hima remained an important aspect of pastoral techniques in the Middle East and North Africa (e.g. from Jordan: https://www.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_aug_30.pdf).

Many areas benefitted from good management plans and progress in implementation in those areas with references (this is all done in the protected areas sections, see Aichi Target 11).

According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics Data, the annual increase in the area of ​​cultivated land reached 7,900 dunums during the year 2019, and it is expected to increase this area through reclamation and rehabilitation programs and greening projects to 9,671 dunums during the year 2021. The area of ​​the new green areas that will be increased annually is about 2,000 dunums. This may contribute to improving the current status of the ecosystem, restoring it and limiting degradation.

Environmental threats are global in nature but are exacerbated in developing countries especially in regions of conflict. In Palestine, even in ancient times there is evidence of Canaanitic villages stripping their populations of gazelles. In the more modern era, forests in the Eastern Mediterranean region were cut down for household, industrial and commercial uses.  Under British occupation (1917-1948), and Israeli and Jordanian rule (>1948) destruction continued but also interventions that were supposed to be beneficial like forestation were done mostly with European pine trees (monoculture of Pinus halepensis) (Qumsiyeh 1996).   Under Israeli occupation and colonization, Palestinians were prevented not only from doing much of their usual agriculture but also from managing lands.  Many forested hills were converted to residential Jewish-only colonial settlements (e.g. Jabal Abu-Ghneim became Har Homa colony near Bethlehem) and generated far more pollution than similar settlements inside Israel. The modern threats were not unanticipated. For example Ives (1950) discussed the land’s capacity and the fact that trends started in the 1930s if continued would devastate the area. Not only was he right but more threats evolved since the 1950s (Qumsiyeh 1996; Tal 2002; Qumsiyeh 2004). Alon Tal acknowledged even before he wrote his book (2002)  that: We came here to redeem a land and we end up contaminating it" (Beyer 1998).

The ranking of threats to the Palestinian Environment according to the 5th national CBD report are available and seem reasonable though could be adjusted when and if additional data become available (EQA 2015; Table. 1). Another report used the Delphi approach to ask some ‘experts” what the main threats are and came up with a somewhat different answer (Abdallah and Swaileh 2011; AlHirsh et al. 2016). But the key threats need not even be prioritized to be analyzed. AlHirsh et al. (2016) used interviews with selected individuals involved in environmental issues in Palestine to see what are the threats that are most prominent to the majority of those individuals.

Table Selected threats to the Palestinian environment (after EQA 2015)

Here we highlight three of the main threats to habitats.

Climate Change: Human induced climate change will drastically effect the Arab world (Verner 2012). A World Bank study shows impacts include water resource decline will be drastic by 2040. In the West Bank and Gaza, while demand will double, supply will shrink dramatically! When coupled with population growth and habitat destruction (see Table 1), tboth the World Bank (Verner 2012) and the UN predict situation to become unlivable (UN 2012).  Newer models attempt to integrate species own responses (ecologically, genetically etc.) in predicting changes in species distribution following climate change and its impact on the habitat (Lavergne et al. 2010). But preliminary data in Palestine in at least one study shows decline in vertebrate biodiversity as desertification spread into the Bethlehem District (Qumsiyeh et al. 2014).

Water and Liquid Waste: The situation of water is becoming very critical in the MENA region. While it is clear how it impacts human health and wellbeing, it is also critical for the ecosystem. The government of the state of Israel which controls Palestinian (native) water claims there is a water shortage but the reality is there is simply unequal distribution (Stauffer 1996).   For example, Israel diverts and uses most of the water resources of the Jordan River basin for irrigation farming through the so called “Israel national water carrier/canal” (Elmusa 1998).  From 1250 million cubic meters (mcm) per year the river’s flow decline to < 20 mcm (Soffer 1994). Palestinians used 140 pumping units along the Jordan river before 1967 and all were.  destroyed or confiscated by the occupation authorities.  Now Palestinians use <0.5% of the river basin waters. After a thorough review of the hydrological data, Elmusa (1998) concluded that: “Israel takes 80-90% of the freshwater resources of geographic Palestine. … The disparity in extraction between the two sides has translated into a conspicuous water gap in all sectors. … The gap is even more conspicuous between the Palestinians and the Israeli settlers who consume five to six times as much per capita as do the Palestinians and are profligate irrigation water users (Elmusa 1998). The UN Commission on Human Rights reported in 2000 that: “The Palestinian use of the Jordan River before 1967 was through 140 pumping units. Israel either confiscated or destroyed all of those pumping units. In addition, Israel closed the large, irrigated areas of the Jordan Valley used by Palestinians, calling them military zones that later were transferred to Israeli settlers. At present Israel extracts more than 85 per cent of the Palestinian water from the West Bank aquifers”

Through military orders, all water in the occupied territories is designated “state owned by Israel” even though this violates the fourth Geneva Convention (UNEP 2003). Palestine (a state not recognized by Israel as the occupying authority) did attempt to draft water and other natural resources’ laws.  The Palestinian authority even failed to get Israel to agree to many waste water and solid waste projects. As Israel takes 91% of the West Bank Water resources, it provides much of it to illegal settlers (UN Commission of Human Rights 2000). It is obvious that all these measures contravene International law and conventions such as the 4th Geneva Convention and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Elmusa 1998 Israel also declared places like the Jordan valley closed military zones.   Vast tracks of Palestinian agricultural lands were thus essentially confiscated and many of them turned to Jewish settlements (Daibes and Daibes-Murad 2003).

The Oslo agreements was supposed to lead to ending the occupation but simply entrenched it with all attendant strengthening of Israeli control over the Natural resources including water. International treaties and laws pertaining to water were ignored in deference to “might makes right” (Tamimi 1996). Regardless of political outcomes, there is simply a very small geographic territory (historic Palestine) with one hydrological system  (Elmusa 1998; Daibes and Daibes-Murad 2003). The situation in Gaza is now catastrophic and cannot continue (Baalousha 2006; UN 2012). Water desalination projects as solution in Gaza have their own environmental issues, see (Assaf 2001).

The Israeli actions toward water sources have been catastrophic for nature biodiversity since the creation of “State of Israel”, starting from drying out al Hula wetlands which eradicated life there and not ending with the Red Sea - Dead Sea Canal project. The latter is a prime environmental problem and should not have been implemented (the project already started). Its impact in the State of Palestine will be most acutely felt in the unnatural “replenishment” of the Dead Sea while leaving the Jordan valley essentially dry and with continued environmental deterioration. We did some work on this but much more research needs to be done and the summary of these things are beyond the scope of this report. More on these issues of water and waste are available under ABT8.

Occupation/colonization: Palestine had an indigenous Canaanitic population going back thousands of years and living in small village communities with few urbanized areas (like Jerusalem, Hebron, and Nablus). At the dawn of the industrial revolution, the population was a few hundred thousand (3% Jewish, 13% Christian, 80% Muslim, 4% other).  The industrial age and improvement in health resulted in population expansion but the Zionist project resulted in ethnic cleansing of most of the natives to be replaced by an immigrant mostly European Jewish population (Pappe 2006). Over 500 villages and towns were destroyed (most in 1948-1950, some in 1967). Whiel Israel was created on 78% of Palestine, the remaining 22% was occupied in 1967. In 1967, Imwas village was depopulated and in its place Canada Park was built. In all other areas of the occupied territories, forests and vegetation cover was removed to build the Israeli settlements which now house hundreds of thousands of Israelis (Fig. 2). Simultaneously, rules were introduced that prevented Palestinians not only from doing much of their usual agriculture but also from managing forested lands or building in open spaces.  Currently nearly one million Israelis live in the occupied West Bank (WB). The WB is also divided into several categories: Jerusalem annexed to Israel, area C under Israeli civil and military control, area B under Israeli military control only (18.3%) and Area A under Palestinian civil and partial security control (17.7%) (Isaac and Hilal, 2011; ARIJ 2015). 30% of the territory is designated as closed military zones and “nature reserves” (these are occasionally reclassified to allow colonization). Israeli colonies were built on hilltops to fit into a pattern as to control the natural resources and control the native Palestinians (Benvenisti 2002; Weizman 2012).   Environmental and human sustainability were not taken into considerations in these political decisions (ARIJ 2015).   Untreated sewage water is discharged by settlers on Palestinian areas (ARIJ 2005; Newman 2009). Israeli polluting industries were built near Palestinian communities in the occupied territories (due totax incentives and lax laws).   Gishuri Industries as an example manufactures pesticides and fertilizers next to Tulkarm. Significant pollution from this and other companies in this area has damaged citrus and vineyards (ARIJ 2015). We also showed significant genotoxic effect of the Barqan Industrial settlement on Burqeen village (Hammad and Qumsiyeh 2013). Israel built "by-pass" roads and other infrastructure in the occupied areas to serve the Jewish colonies.   Lands were confiscated to build these, including extra “security zones and buffers” around roads, walls, etc.  The landscape was severely damaged 51.2 km2 were destroyed just in 2000 for roads that do not served the local population.  Land that was used by Palestinians or by wildlife thus was urbanized.   Palestinians in the West Bank make 2.5 million people living in a built up area of 367.7 km2; a density of 6800 Palestinians per square kilometer which is 10 times more dense than for Israelis (ARIJ 2015). The disparity between settlers and natives in land control, economy, and access is also compounded by disparity in use of natural resources discussed earlier (Gordon 2008; Weizman 2012). There are many other issues where the occupation negatively impacts sustainable development and the environment (MOPAD 2014). For example, tourism industry was mostly taken over and it is supporting Israeli economy while negatively impacting the Palestinian economy and the Palestinian environment(Shay 2016; Isaac et al. 2016). Another example is the destruction of Bedouins life in the Negev (creating “concentration areas” for them)h.(Weizman et al. 2015).

Politics trumping facts can be devastating to understanding of issues like environment and water. For example, deliberately misstating facts, hiding them, selectively representing uncertainty and much more was done by Israeli officials to serve their political interests in the Jordan River basin (Messerschmid and Selby 2015). Israel’s unilateral actions of colonial settlement expansion and destruction of native lives has had devastating impacts on the Palestinian environment and raises significant questions about the possibility of planning let alone sustainability under occupation (Isaac et al. 2004). There may be good reason to engage in legal proceedings that would be backed by good research and enlisting the services of good legal scholars and lawyers to pursue clams of environmental injustice and damages at local, national, and international fora. The term “Green-washing the occupation” comes to mind when we realize that in many cases Israel takes land on the pretext of protecting it only to build colonies on it  (Etkes and Ofran 2007).  Ras Imweis and adjacent areas is a good example of this (became the settlement Nahal Shilo).  “Nature Reserves” and closed areas became pretexts for land confiscation.  Such exploitation was obvious in Bethlehem Governorate, when Har Homa settlement was established in 1997 on Abu Ghneim Mountain

Conclusion: There is significant shortage of data on this target and it has not been managed well in the past. After writing the cross-sectoral strategy (EQA 2017) the Palestinian Government committed resources and experts to conserve the environment. The EQA has also just engaged with IUCN and others on analysis of levels of protection in different KBAs including a gap analysis. This project is for 2021-2022 and should result in better protection. However, much depends on political developments in the next few years and if a just peace agreement is implemented and our EQA and other stakeholders have actual access and responsibility on natural resources of Palestine, we can achieve much more in protection. Further better management and measures taken to stem loss of habitats and species should be now incorporated in the new NBSAP (to be completed in 2022). Also a new spatial plan going to 2050 is being worked on now that takes into consideration environmental needs and protection

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The Gaza coastal line is 42 km long. The coastal land and sea zone of Gaza is facing serious environmental threats because of the limited land resources, large and rapidly growing population (most of it refugees), long term isolation as result of the regional political circumstances and an underdeveloped environmental protection system which caused serious deterioration of land and water resources as well as pollution of various compartments of the coastal environment. Meanwhile, depletion of sand resources, erosion, disturbance in marine and coastal ecology, pollution by wastewater and solid waste are the most significant problems and threats, resulting from faulty practices and activities posing a health risk for swimmers, marine life, the quality of fish and coastal pollution.  There are other problems and threats institutionally such as lack of cooperation among the parties concerned and lack of access to information. As a result, different authorities and stakeholders may have different agendas for coastal and marine development issues and the fishery sector, and they have not yet set out their stall. 

The marine life of the Gaza strip is found in different types of habitats (Pelagic, Epipelagic, Benthic muddy, Benthic sandy, Benthic rocky, Benthic vegetation) and the use of multiple habitat types is common for many species.  However, different fish species are coming under severe marine environmental pressure owing to the removal of rocks in the shallow coastal zone to be used in construction. In particular, the marine area of the Gaza strip between 20 and 200 meters where most fishing activities take place puts the fish under severe pressure.

Table Pressures and the Associated Impacts of the Marine Ecosystem

Proposed and needed projects to protect and sustain marine life in Gaza strip (adding to Safieh 2000) include:  

1. Sewage treatment project: beach camp shore protection, rehabilitation of threatened plants in sand dunes, research, a training project for fishermen, and Wadi Gaza protection.
2. There is a lack of marine studies (research and education) which contributes to a gap in the knowledge in these areas and detract from proper planning for conservation. 
3. There is an issue of inaccessibility and lack of sovereignty of the native people on their coastal waters (because of the Israeli occupation), limited fishing area, overfishing and pollution of the marine environment with different pollutants especially wastewater which adversely impact the health of the marine ecosystem and its biological content (Abd Rabou, 2013; Abd Rabou et al.,  2007).
4. High density of population and de-development caused by large populations of refugees not being allowed to return to their homes and lands and by persistent occupation and its policies.

Figure: Gaza Strip Fishing Zone 

Table Quantity of Aquaculture of Fish in Palestine by Governorate and Type, 2018 (PCBS 2020). Quantity in Metric Tons

Table Quantity of Caught Fish in Gaza Strip by Governorate and Type, 2018

Table Caught fish off of Gaza with number of fisherman and boats 2004-2018 (PCBS portal)

Successive wars on Gaza strip and the thousands of tons of waste from building destruction which is polluted with things like depleted uranium and white phosphorus leaches also into the Mediterranean with rainwater adding harm to the marine environment. 

Conclusion: The marine ecosystem of the coast of Gaza is suffering from overfishing and pollution (see also ABT 8). Part of the issue is the blockade of Gaza and ongoing Israeli violations of signed agreements and international law. The Palestinian government has essentially no access to manage this issue under occupation. 

References:

Palestinian agriculture was developed during the Natufian period and was relatively in harmony with nature for over 10,000 years. The modern practices of agriculture, especially pest control methods via chemical means, have resulted in significant environmental hazards.  The introduction of pesticides came under British mandate rule, 1920-1948, and was expanded after the formation of the state of Israel in 1948. Pesticides are now used extensively in Palestinian agriculture, and this is partly due to the reduction in the land available to Palestinian agriculture. under the mistaken belief that use of pesticides is indispensable to increase yield (Saleh et al., 1995). Even in impoverished Gaza, there is significant pesticide use on limited land (see Abu Middain, 1994) and nitrates seem to affect the health of people in Gaza (Abu Naser et al., 2007, Al-Absi, 2008). The national Spatial plan developed in 2014 regulates the different land use plans mainly the agricultural lands which are categorized as high value and medium value lands (SP 2014). 

Nearly 30% of Palestinians are employed in the agricultural sector, and this is directly relevant to biodiversity and environmental conservation. With increasingly limited land and water resources, some intensive agricultural practices have been adopted that are harmful to our environment. For example, insecticide use has gone up in areas like Tubas district. Agricultural practices that are not ensuring agricultural biodiversity nor rotating crops (i.e. monoculture and “agriculture industry”) are devastating to sustainability and environmental protection (Garnett et al., 2013; Tscharntke et al., 2012; Wezel, 2014). Agricultural biodiversity websites like this http://www.bioversityinternational.org/ are now important to study and be aware of and the MoA is the key to this. The conservation of agrobiodiversity became part of the national agenda when the MoA adopted a national policy for “promoting the conservation of Agrobiodiversity''. Most of the agrobiodiversity relates to crops dependent on rainfall (ba’al or dryland farming) not irrigated crops.

Figure Percentage of cultivated land area from total area by Governorate, 2010/2011. (Raw data from PCBS, 2014 but modified by EQA 2015 CBD report)

The National Agriculture Sector Strategy “Resilience and Development” 2014 – 2016 identified four strategic objectives for 2014–2016: 1) Ensure farmers’ resilience and attachment to their land, while fulfilling the contribution of the agriculture sector in providing essentials for the development of the State of Palestine; 2) Efficient and sustainable management of natural resources; 3) Enhanced agricultural production, productivity and competitiveness, as well as enhanced contribution of agriculture to food security; and 4) The agriculture sector has effective and efficient capacities, institutional frameworks, legal environment, infrastructure and agricultural services.

The Directorate for Forests, Rangelands and Wildlife has offices in all governorates of the West Bank. Forty rangers are responsible for inspecting and patrolling the protected areas and the natural forests throughout the areas under the jurisdiction of the MoA. Of the 19 protected areas that were handed over to the Palestinian Authority under the Oslo agreement, only eight are under the actual control of MoA, amounting to less than 15 sq km. The remaining 10 are within area C or overlapped areas. 

Table: Protected areas that are under the Ministry of Agriculture control.

There are no new updates from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics on agricultural statistics in Palestine after the year 2015.

Palestine is part of the fertile Crescent where humans first developed agricultural practices including domestication of plants and Animals. Wadi Al-Natuf as a valley in the northern West Bank was the first place archaeologists identified such areas and hence we speak of Natufian Agriculture (see Bar-Yosef 1998).  Both irrigated agriculture and rain-fed farming are practiced (Isaac and Gasteyer, 1995). Rainfed agriculture makes up 95% of the agricultural land in the West Bank and 40% in the Gaza Strip. Irrigated agriculture, practiced by both Jewish Settlers and Palestinian farmers, could potentially have a negative effect on long-term sustainability. Intensive discharge of ground water and use of fertilizers, pesticides, other chemicals and non-degradable materials such as plastics, present a threat to biodiversity, as they are hazardous not only to the soil, but to all the surrounding plant species and wildlife.

Decline in agriculture: In 2011, PCBS reports estimated that the value of Palestinian agricultural production was $1,295 million (70% in the West Bank, and 30% in the Gaza Strip) (PCBS, 2012). But the agricultural sector’s contribution to the Palestinian gross domestic product (GDP) was only 4.1% in the year 2013, and 3.4% of the GDP of the West Bank (PCBS, 2014). The cultivated area decreased from 1,904, 000 dunums during the growing season of 1994/1995 to 1,612,000 dunums during the growing season of 1998/1999, then to 1,034,901 dunums in the growing season of 2010/2011 (PCBS, 1997, 2001, 2011). One result has been that total cultivated area in the West Bank has fallen from 47% at the start of 1967, to less than 20% in 1994 (Isaac and Gasteyer, 1995). Also contributing to this was the lack of reliable markets, in large part because of Israeli restrictions which have led to many farmers working outside of agriculture, and thus spending less time than might be necessary in the maintenance of rain-fed crops. It is also the case that tenure arrangements and restrictions on land use have diminished the size of agricultural plots, thus greatly diminishing the production potential for any individual farmers. The combination of these things, along with an often low amount of rainfall and a variation in precipitation due to adverse effects of climate change in different years, has meant that much of rain-fed agriculture in SP operates far below its development potential.

Figure's Source: MoA, 2016 and El Zein R., 2017

There are several reasons for the decline of the agricultural sector’s contribution to GDP over the years, but one of the main reasons is the growth in other sectors such as services, construction, and information technology. This has caused a significant reduction in agriculture’s contribution to employment over the years.

Since 2006, the agricultural sector has witnessed a significant decline in the number of agricultural workers, for both women and men, due to restrictions imposed on the sector’s development and its low production. In 2006, the labor force in the agricultural sector constituted 16.7% of the total labor force (12.6% male, 35.1% female), falling to 8.7% in 2015 (PCBS, 2000-2015). The percentage of men working in the sector was estimated at 7.8% of total male workers in 2015, while 13.1% of total female workers were employed in agriculture, which indicates the relative importance of the agricultural sector to women (MoA, 2016). Breghieth and Qanam (1998) remain the only group to assess both the use-values and non-use values of Palestinian Forests.

[needs a reference]

Figure Agricultural Contribution to Employment. Source: PCBS, 2000-2016 and declining value relative to GDP. Value of agricultural production not adjusted to inflation.

Table: Basic Changes for the Livestock in Palestine, 2015 – 2018

Variable*	2015	2016	2017	2018
Number of Vaccines given to the  Animals(1)	1,088,528	1,156,236	1,762,807	1,726,217
Number of Slaughtered Cows(2)	33,129	33,285	37,437	51,327
Number of Slaughtered Sheep(2)	42,354	37,365	41,351	61,399
Number of Slaughtered Goats(2)	4,004	4,384	3,957	6,197
Produced Broiler Chicks (thousand)(3)	75,536	86,739	98,016	88,630
Produced Layered Chicks (thousand)(3)	767.1	..	432.0	532

PCBS http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_Rainbow/Documents/livestock-2018-E-TimeSeries.html

 

Table: Economic Forecasts in Palestine for the Year 2020, in light of the Current Coronavirus Pandemic for the most Important Macroeconomic Indicators (PCBS 2020b). Value in USD Million

Indicator	2019	Baseline Scenario for 2020	Scenario on the Continuation of the Pandemic 2020 for 3 Months	Losses in 2020 (Difference between Baseline Scenario and Pandemic Scenario)	Percentage of Change in Normal Status (Baseline Scenario for 2020(  Compared to 2019 %	Percentage of Change in Pandemic Scenario for 2020 compared to 2019 %
GDP Components by Expenditure Side
Gross Domestic Product	15,764	16,137	13,638	-2,499	2.4	-13.5
Final consumption	17,310	17,746	16,409	-1,337	2.5	-5.2
Gross Capital Formation	4,199	4,432	2,376	-2,056	5.6	-43.4
Net exports of goods and services	-5,745	-6,040	-5,146	894	5.1	-10.4
Gross exports	2,624	2,725	2,570	-155	3.9	-2.0
Gross Imports	8,368	8,766	7,716	-1,049	4.7	-7.8
Economic Activities
Agriculture, forestry and fishing	1,092	1,131	931	-200	3.7	-14.7

Conclusion: The work done in central planning and management on this target were partially effective. The National Agricultural Sector Strategy Update “Resilient and Sustainable Agriculture 2021-2023" has introduced new measures and the new NBSAP (slated for 2022) will have more action plans that ensures better planning in this area. Yet, continued Israeli occupation had and could have more negative ramifications as many agricultural lands in the state of Palestine are being developed by Israeli agriculture that is industrialized and sustainable management of these lands become difficult without sovereignty. Finally, a new national spatial plan is being worked on that if implemented would allow the state of Palestine to comply with the SDGs and with all the ABTs here as well as the new plans being formulated by CBD mainly the development of the post-2020 global biodiversity framework and to comply with other planned conventions. We are incorporating such issues in the new (released in 2022) NBSAP.

References:

Abu Naser, A., Ghbn, N. & Khoudary, R. 2007. Relation Of Nitrate Contamination Of Groundwater With Methaemoglobin Level Among Infants In Gaza. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 13, 994-1004.

Al-Absi, A. 2008. Nitrate Contamination Of Ground Water And Methemoglobinemia In Gaza Strip. J Al-Aqsa Unv, 12, 1-14.

Bar-Yosef, O., 1998. The Natufian culture in the Levant. Evolutionary Anthropology, 6(5), pp.167-168.

Breghiet, A., K. Qanam K. (1998). Implementation of Modern Technology in the Development of Forest Resources, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Forestry, West Bank.
El Zein, R. (2017). Developing a Palestinian Resistance Economy through Agricultural Labor. Journal of Palestine Studies 46 (3): 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1525/jps.2017.46.3.7
Garnett, T., Appleby, M.C., Balmford, A., Bateman, I.J., Benton, T.G., Bloomer, P., Burlingame, B., Dawkins, M., Dolan, L., Fraser, D. And Herrero, M., 2013. Sustainable Intensification In Agriculture: Premises And Policies. Science, 341(6141), Pp.33-34

MoA 2016. National Agriculture Sector Strategy (2017-2022). http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/pal174456E.pdf

SP 2014. National Spatial Plan المخطط الوطني لحماية الموارد الطبيعية والمعالم التاريخية– دولة فلسطين 2014 see also https://info.wafa.ps/userfiles/server/pdf/p.n.p.pdf

Tscharntke, T., Clough, Y., Wagner, T.C., Jackson, L., Mote, I., Perfecto, I., Vander Meer, J. And Whitbread, A., 2012. Global Food Security, Biodiversity Conservation And The Future Of Agricultural Intensification. Biological Conservation, 151(1), Pp.53-59

Wezel, A., Casagrande, M., Celette, F., Vian, J.F., Ferrer, A. And Peigné, J., 2014. Agroecological Practices For Sustainable Agriculture. A Review. Agronomy For Sustainable Development, 34(1), Pp.1-20

Palestine has made some advances towards ABT 8 by doing more research on pollution in recent years. This includes research on noise pollution (Hustim et al. 2018), groundwater pollution (Aliewi and Al-Khatib 2015), drinking water pollution (Daghara et al. 2019), air pollution (Jodeh et al. 2018), heavy metal pollution (Zaqoot et al. 2018), and landfill impacts (Salah et al. 2019) among other studies. Qureitem et al. (2020) have published an inventory of main greenhouse gas emissions in Palestine. There have also been other studies on the reduction/control possibilities of pollution in Palestine (El Baba et al. 2015; Khayat 2020). 

Analysis of Waste Management Policies in Palestine (ARIJ 2005): Solid waste and wastewater management in the West Bank has never been achieved on an environmental assessment basis due to neglected infrastructure during the Israeli occupation. The current waste management has negatively affected the environment and resulted deleterious damage in natural resources and biodiversity and also introduced serious public health problems and risks due to contamination of water, food and air. The study showed that Palestinians are aware of the aforementioned problems and willing to participate in decision making plans to find practical, economically feasible and environmentally friendly solutions to such problems. 

Development of a National Master Plan for Hazardous Waste Management (EQA, 2010) The main aim of the plan is to establish  a sustainable and environmental management of hazardous waste through a National Hazardous Waste Management Plan (NHWMP). This aim  can be achieved through the accomplishment of an inventory, strategy and a capacity building program of the Hazardous Waste Management. The plan sets explicitly direct objectives: 1) effective management of hazardous waste,  to prevent environmental pollution and adverse health effects due to its improper handling & disposal. 2) an appropriate master plan for the regulatory bodies, generators of hazardous waste, its re-cyclers and operators of facilities to minimize, recycle, treat and dispose of leftover hazardous waste in an environmentally sound manner. 3) design an implementation plan on management aspects of hazardous waste, and to fulfill obligations under the Basel Convention on Trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes including their minimization environmentally sound management and active promotion of transfer and use of cleaner technologies. 4) appropriate clean technology for the industrial Palestinian sectors.  The plan addresses the appropriate treatment of all hazardous waste (including industrial, medical, agriculture etc.). The implementation of the strategic management plan integrates all stakeholders including ministries and institutions that play part in strategic plans and policy making. 

Country report on the solid waste management (GIZ, 2014). This report is an updated and restructured illustration of municipal solid waste management, legislation, policies, institutional and financial aspects. It also addressed several other streams such as hazardous waste, agricultural and green waste, oil and lubricant waste, medical waste, e-waste, and packaging waste which was not addressed in depth in the previous report. The municipal solid waste generation in 2013 is at 0.94 kg/capita/day, with an increase of about 1% per capita per year. Waste collection rate reached 91.5% of households in 2013. Sanitary disposal is increasing in the country where 33% of the waste generated is currently disposed of in sanitary landfills. The recommendations of the report are concluded:  

• Developing standards and environmental operational guidelines for sanitary landfills and transfer stations 
• Reviewing and amending the drafted bylaw on solid waste management to address new developments in the solid waste sector 
• Capacity building to the justice sector on solid waste management issues to support laws enforcement 
• Conducting inventory on e-waste and inventory on C&D waste. 

Figure: Waste composition in the West Bank (SP 2020)

Figure: Sewage water effluent and sewage treatment plants in Gaza coastline (SP 2020b)



Figure: Pollution in Gaza Sea (SP 2020b)

The expected percentage of treated waste water inside Palestine from the produced wastewater by year (PCBS 2021)

This increase could not be achieved without increasing the number of treatment plants, which are scheduled to increase from 10 stations in 2019 to 11 stations in 2021. In order to contribute to the restoration of the ecosystem, it is planned to increase the area of agricultural land irrigated annually from treated wastewater by around 1,800 dunums during 2021, according to the data of the Ministry of Agriculture.

Data from the Ministry of Local Government indicate that the percentage of solid waste that is dumped in a sanitary manner out of the total waste produced in 2019 was about 98%. This percentage is expected to reach 100% in 2023. According to the same source, and in regards to the percentage of waste that is recycled out of the total waste produced, it ranged from 1.5% in 2019 to 10% during 2023.

Percentage of expected waste recycled out of total waste produced by year

According to the Environment Quality Authority data, the percentage of hazardous waste that is treated out of the total waste produced reached 2% during 2019, , where this percentage, according to the data of the Environment Quality Authority and the Ministry of Local Government, is expected to reach 10% by 2023..

The percentage of hazardous waste expected to be treated out of the total waste produced by year



Environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies are required by  Palestinian law for new construction projects. However, law enforcement is not well developed for EIAs, although there are few recent studies (Bacenetti et al. 2016; Saleh 2016; Sayara 2016).

There were some improvements in the past few years in terms of controlling random dumping sites and directing them to landfills and other facilities operated by Joint Service Councils. Here are select examples: Ubeidiya random dump site rehabilitated (ARIJ 2016). Under the ministry of local government there is a general directorate of joint services councils. These JSCs work to manage solid waste for groups of population centers (MoLG & JICA, 2015). The actions of JSCs is also described in detail in the Solid Waste Management Strategy (MoLG, 2016).

The EQA worked to control dumping for example in conducting field visits (over 450 annually), challenging violations (dozens brought to court and many others dealt with in other ways) (see annual report https://bit.ly/3uoQSHp).

The basic regulation on the Joint Service Councils of year 1996, and its updates, last in 2006:

• Local government law No. 1 of 1997: Describes the roles and responsibilities of the local authorities within their jurisdiction, the law clearly shows that solid waste management is the responsibility of these local authorities.
• The Investment Promotion Law No.1/1998 and Palestinian Reform and Development Plan of 2008-2010 to regulate investments
• Environmental law of 1999: The law establishes the general legal framework for solid waste management in Palestine. Reduction of the negative effects resulted from the Solid Waste and providing the legislative related to Sanitary landfills, forbidding waste burning and encouraging reusing and recycling of solid wastes.
• The Palestinian Environmental Impact Assessment Policy of 2000 defines the activities subject to an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) which includes all solid waste projects. Palestinian Law (2003) identifies the right to a clean and a balanced environment as a basic right of every Palestinian and that preservation of the Palestinian environment for the sake of both present and future generations is a national duty (article 33).
• Public health law No. 20 of 2004: Describes the regulations concerning solid waste management, roles of hazardous waste management and ensuring health conditions.
• The Medical Waste Management Bylaw 2012
• The National Strategy for Solid Waste Management (NSSWM)(2010 – 2014): aims at setting the development path for the Palestinian solid waste management (SWM) until 2014.

There was significant development of sewage treatment facilities such as in Rafah facilitated by ICRC (PWA 2012; ARIJ 2016) but much more remains to do to deal with increasing volume. 95% of households are connected to solid waste collection services (MoLG & JICA, 2015). While some new landfills were established for example Al-Minya landfill to serve the south West Bank needs, these are inadequate for societal needs and leachate from solid waste dump sites is not adequately addressed (ARIJ 2016; MoLG, 2016). Groups and entities that work on areas of solid and liquid waste management: UNRWA, Government ministries (MoLG, EQA), private sector, civil society organizations, iNGOs and donors. For example, there are relatively new wastewater treatment facility near Nablus (http://wwtp.nablus.org/). Another example is that ARIJ managed to do wastewater treatment like in Wadi Saeer the institute established wastewater treatment unit with a capacity of 1,200 CM per day and preserved an area of 500 dunums of land that used to be flooded by wastewater and the institute had innovative special units for treating the black water form houses to be used for irrigating trees in home gardens and the units targeted the houses that are existing in the areas around spring and they are using cesspits and polluting these spring. This institute managed to convince people to replace these crisps with these wastewater treatment units and by that we save these springs and biodiversity around it.

The objectives of the 2017-2022 Cross-Sectoral Environmental Strategy are: First to maintain the environmental pollution levels at low level and to be controlled. Second, the natural environment and biodiversity shall be maintained and managed in a sustainable manner. Third, measures for climate change adaptation, combat desertification, and dealing with environmental disasters and emergencies shall be adopted and implemented. Fourth, the environmental legal framework shall be updated, activated, and integrated; so that the institutional framework is empowered and efficient, and international cooperation is enhanced. Fifth, the level of environmental awareness, knowledge, and practice shall be increased and enhanced (Unpublished, Palestine Biosafety assessment Report 2021, EQA). A summary of the environmental policies are summarized in the following table.

Table: Environmental policies in SP

The situation for sewage management in the occupied Palestinian areas is critical. In Gaza, a significant portion of the sewage flows untreated to the Mediterranean Sea (Ashour et al. 2009). According UNEP (2003), 70% of solid waste in the occupied Palestinian territories is organic waste. This is a very high number and one that gives us an opportunity for significant reduction via composting to generate fertilizers. Sewage can also be treated and other solid waste like metals and plastics and glass can be recycled. Waste water is dumped on some significant supposedly protected areas like Wadi Qana, Wadi Nar, Wadi Far’a (Bathan), and around Salfit (EQA 2015) and into the Mediterranean Sea where it is highly damaging to the environment (Akram and Cheslow 2016).  There is a real crisis in logistics and financing for proper solid waste disposal in Palestine (Abu Thaher 2005; Al-Khatib et al. 2007). The majority of solid waste disposed of in Palestinian areas like Nablus is organic which indicates a great potential for resource utilization such as for composting/fertilizer generation (Al-Khatib et al. 2010). But as in many developing countries, management of such solid waste lags behind significantly (Ahmed and Ali 2004).

Conclusion: There has been improvements since the 5th NR in regards to reduction of pollutants, government oversight of dumbing sites, and development of liquid waste treatment facilities. However, much more work needs to be done in areas of solid waste management (including recycling). 

References:

Abu Thaher A (2005) Solid Wastes Collection, Disposal, And Financial Aspects In The West Bank. Environment Quality Authority, Ramallah

Ahmed SA, Ali M (2004) Partnerships For Solid Waste Management In Developing Countries: Linking Theories To Realities. J Habitat Int 28:467-479

Akram F, Cheslow D (2016) Gaza Sewage Poisons Coastline, Threatens Israel. In: phys.org. https://phys.org/news/2016-05-gaza-sewage-poisons-coastline-threatens.html

Aliewi, A. and Al-Khatib, I.A., 2015. Hazard and risk assessment of pollution on the groundwater resources and residents’ health of Salfit District, Palestine. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 4, pp.472-486.

Al-Khatib IA, Arafat HA, Basheer T et al (2007) Trends and problems of solid waste management in developing countries: A case study in seven Palestinian Districts. Waste Manag 27:1910-1919

Al-Khatib IA, Monou M, Zahra ASFA, et al (2010) Solid Waste Characterization, Quantification And Management Practices In Developing Countries. A Case Study: Nablus District. Palest J Environ Manag 91:1131-1138

ARIJ 2005. Analysis of Waste Management Policies in Palestine. https://www.arij.org/files/admin/2005-2_Analysis_of_Waste_Management_Policies_in_Palestine.pdf

ARIJ 2016. Status Of Environment In OPT 2015 Http://Www.Arij.Org/Latest-News/779-The-Status-Of-Env-2015-2016.Html

Bacenetti, J., Fiala, M., Baboun, S.H., Demery, F. and Aburdeineh, I., 2016. Environmental impact assessment of electricity generation from biogas in Palestine. Environmental Engineering & Management Journal (EEMJ), 15(9).

CESVI 2019. (in cooperation with Ministry of Local Government) Solid Waste Management In The Occupied Palestinian Territory: West Bank including East Jerusalem & Gaza Strip.  September, 2019

Daghara, A., Al-Khatib, I.A. and Al-Jabari, M., 2019. Quality of drinking water from springs in Palestine: west Bank as a case study. Journal of environmental and public health, 2019.Saleh, Y., 2016. Comparative life cycle assessment of beverages packages in Palestine. Journal of Cleaner Production, 131, pp.28-42.

El Baba, M., Kayastha, P. and De Smedt, F., 2015. Landfill site selection using multi-criteria evaluation in the GIS interface: a case study from the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 8(9), pp.7499-7513.

EQA 2010. The Development of a National Master Plan for Hazardous Waste Management for the Palestinian National Authority (PNA)- A. Environmental Quality Authority. https://bit.ly/3g9MKan

GIZ 2014. Country report on the solid waste management in Occupied PalestinianTerritories. https://environment.pna.ps/ar/files/Country%20report%20on%20the%20solid%20waste%20management.pdf

Hustim, M., El Zaza, A., Al Madhoun, W., Heen, Z.A., Aly, S.H. and Ramli, M.I., 2018. Assessing Noise Pollution and its Impact on Student’s Blood Pressure and Their Learning Performance in Palestine. In MATEC Web of Conferences (Vol. 203, p. 03008). EDP Sciences.

Jodeh, S., Hasan, A.R., Amarah, J., Judeh, F., Salghi, R., Lgaz, H. and Jodeh, W., 2018. Indoor and outdoor air quality analysis for the city of Nablus in Palestine: Seasonal trends of PM 10, PM 5.0, PM 2.5, and PM 1.0 of residential homes. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 11(2), pp.229-237.

Jouda, M. I. 2018. Adaptation and Resilience Level of Wadi Gaza Neighborhoods Due to continuous seasonal Flooding. Master thesis, The Islamic University of Gaza. https://library.iugaza.edu.ps/thesis/124840.pdf  

Khayat, S., 2020. Estimation of the Environmental Flow Regime to Determine the Minimum Flow for Pollution Reduction: Wadi Zomar-Palestine as a Case Study.

MoLG (2016) Solid Waste Management Strategy 2017-2022.  

MoLG, & JICA. (2015). Joint Service Council's guide for the management of solid waste in Palestine. Ramallah –Palestine

PWA 2016. National Water Sector Strategic Plan and Action Plan (2017-2022). http://www.lacs.ps/documentsShow.aspx?ATT_ID=34411

Qureitem, G., Al-Khatib, I.A. and Anayah, F., 2020. Inventory of main greenhouse gas emissions from energy sector in Palestine. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 192(1), pp.1-15.

Salah, M.M., Al-Sari, M.I., Al-Khatib, I.A. and Kontogianni, S., 2019. Local residents’ perception of landfill impacts in Palestine: the case of Zahrat Al-Finjan landfill. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, pp.1-

Saleh, Y., 2016. Comparative life cycle assessment of beverages packages in Palestine. Journal of Cleaner Production, 131, pp.28-42.

Sayara, T., 2016. Environmental impact assessment of quarries and stone cutting industries in Palestine: case study of Jammain. J. Environ. Prot. Sustain. Dev, 2, pp.32-38.

SP 2020a The strategic results framework of the National Development Plan (2021-2023), Presidency of the Council of Ministers, April 2021.

SP 2020b. Atlas of Sustainable Development 2020. Ramallah, Palestine

Zaqoot, H.A., Aish, A.M. and Wafi, H.N., 2018. Study on heavy metal pollution in Gaza fishing harbour along the Mediterranean Sea-Gaza beach, Palestine. Journal of Aquatic Science and Marine Biology, 1(1), pp.24-34.

Alien (non-native) species form an increasing percentage of local fauna and flora species around the world posing threats to biodiversity (Sandlund and Johan 1999). Nearly half a million species have been reported as invasive worldwide (Pimental et al., 2001). The invasiveness threat has increased because both ease of transportation and human habitat destruction opens many opportunities for invasive species to establish themselves around the world (see Figure). In fact, these invasive species are now considered the second most important threat to biodiversity after direct habitat destruction by humans (Kettunen et al., 2009). There is still some debate on the issue of whether increased local biodiversity protects from invasive species or not and how best to deal with this phenomenon (Levine, 2000), including how climate change could be a key factor of increasing invasiveness around the world (Ziska and Dukes, 2014).

Figure: Invasive species stages

Flora: 

Table: Invasive plants species in Palestine

According to the Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species (shorturl.at/hqJU0), the following plants are considered invasive to the Palestinian Territories (Table). Invasive plants species includes about 50 species, the species of high invasiveness include Prosopis juliflora, Acacia saligna, Agava americana, Ailanthus altissim, Conyza bonariensis, Nicotiana glauca, Oxalis pes-caprae, Solanum elaeagnifolium, and Ambrosia confertiflora. Other ornamental plants that have became invasive in other parts of Palestine include about 20 species (Dufour-Dro, 2013), and may expand their range into the Palestinian Territories. Within this link there is a list of Adventive plant species http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adventive_wild_plants_in_Israel. Plant Biodiversity in the Palestinian Territories http://archive.thisweekinpalestine.com/details.php?id=2380&ed=150&edid=150

Table: Plant invasive species in the Palestinian Territories listed by the Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species (shorturl.at/hqJU0)

Table: Alien Ornamental Plant Species that may expand their range into the Palestinian Territories.

Massive changes in landscape in historic Palestine include introduction of non-native species (by the British and then by the Israelis) causing damage to the local fauna and flora. The most extensive was the planting of European trees to cover up the remains (including native trees) of over 500 Palestinian villages and towns depopulated in 1948-1950. Israel undertook a similar process after 1967 with three Palestinian villages creating the “Canada Park” area (NW Jerusalem). Calling this “afforestation” and writing articles that hide its true devastating environmental impact is now commonplace (Ginsberg, 2006).  The invasiveness threat increased because of ease of transportation and human habitat destruction that opens many avenues for invasive species to get established around the world. In fact, these invasive species are now considered the second most important threat to biodiversity after direct habitat destruction by humans (Kettunen et al., 2009).

Birds: Invasive bird species that established themselves in the Palestinian Territories include the Rose-ringed Parakeet, Pisttacula krameri, the Common Myna, Acridotheres tristis, Myiopsitta monachus, and the Indian Silverbill, Lonchura malabarica (Awad, 2016). Bird species escape from human captivity and in the case of the myna are highly adaptable and significantly impacted local species and could affect human health (Mori et al., 2018). At present, the Common Myna can be observed in all parts of the Palestinian Territories and expanding at an alarming scale (Handal and Qumsiyeh, 2021).

Mammals: The Coypu or the Nutria, Myocastor coypus, is the only mammals introduced to the Jordan River basin. Worldwide, the Nutria (has been introduced from its original habitats in South America to all continents except Australia and Antarctica (Carter & Leonard, 2002), and became a pest species, causing damage to water control structures, crops, and marsh systems and is considered a disease host. The Nutria is the only species of introduced mammals known to occur in the major permanent water bodies of Jordan (Amr, 2012). It was introduced into the area by Jewish fish farmers for fur production in the early 1950’s from Chile (Bodenheimer, 1958).

Fishes: There are invasive salt water fish in the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Gaza (Abu Amra, 2018). A total of 27 species of alien freshwater fishes have been introduced to Palestine (Roll et al., 2007). Of these 10 species within five families have become established in the Jordan River Basin within fishponds or some penetrated to the river (Table).

Table: Invasive freshwater fishes established in the Jordan Basin (Roll et al., 2007)

Mollusca: About 19 and 33 species of freshwater and terrestrial snails respectively are considered invasive to Palestine, inhabiting various types of habitats. Most of these snails gain entrance through imported seedlings and the aquaria fishes (Roll et al., 2009). Cornu aspersum, Eobania vermiculata, and Rumina decollata were observed in the West Bank (Handal et al., in preparation).

Arthropods: Handal (2017) and Handal & Qumsiyeh (2019) reported on invasive arthropods to the West Bank (Table). Kehat (1999) and Abd Rabou & Radwan (2017) reported on the Red Palm Weevil in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Invasive insects associated with Eucalyptus originating from different countries were studied and constituted about 40% of insects feeding on this tree (Mendel & Protasov, 2019). Invasive species of public health includes the recording of the Asian Tiger Mosquito, Aedes albopictus, by Adawi (2012).

Table :Some invasive arthropods reported from the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

The EQA issued a tender for invasive alien species (IAS) in January 2021 with the following specifications

• To review current status and distribution of IAS in Palestine using published and unpublished literatures, reports and documents 
• To Perform a comprehensive (main invaded Areas) field survey of the IAS. • To determine the pathways of the IAS and their vectors of (as possible). 
• To propose an effective national early detection and warning system for monitoring, control and rapid response including enforcement of the IAS 
• To develop a national plan of action including the methods and techniques to control, containment, and combat the IAS establishment and their eradication (mechanical, physical, chemical. etc), 
• To develop a national capacity building plan on IAS, and the modes of eradication and management. to detect, respond, control and manage IAS impacts in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine systems 
• To prepare legislations and by-laws (as possible) for IAS control and management. 
• To establish a database and mapping (main invaded areas) of the IAS and their distribution. As a result, the main invasive species and their current distribution within the country should be identified. In combination with an assessment of their various modes of transfer, 
• To prioritize the IAS on the basis of their adverse effects and degree of spread and coverage To identify major anthromenic factors responsible to spread the IAS

The invasive species in Palestine are increasing both in the number of species and in the degree to which some of them have proliferated. The main restrictions on the import of species into the country are those of the Ministry of Agriculture but Israel remains the authority in charge of borders (EQA, 2015). But we need better surveys, assessments, and research studies of invasive species and how to control them. The result according to UNEP-WCMC (2015) is an estimated loss of 15% in biodiversity.

The PIBS/PMNH work in the field of fanatic invasive species in the West Bank of Palestine and it had detected several invasive insect species such as Leptoglossus occidentalis and Deroplax silphoides (Handal, 2017; Handal and Qumsiyeh, 2019). Moreover, several studies in progress to understand the distribution and ecology of some other species and the effect on native species, environment and human, such as invasive bird species (Myna Bird) (Handal and Qumsiyeh, 2020 submit).

Invasive species in historic Palestine varied between groups, and keep increasing (see table) (Roll et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2008, 2009; Dufour-Dror, 2012).

Table: Summary stats for invasive species.

Conclusions: There are good studies including ongoing ones on the issue of invasive flora and fauna in the State of Palestine. However, very little control control measures were developed or implemented. Currently (2021) the EQA with external consultants is developing a strategy for management of invasive species. This will also be incorporated in the new NBSAP (2022). 

References

Abd Rabou, A.N. & Radwan, E.S. 2017. Visual symptoms and control of the Red Palm Weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) in the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Nusantara Bioscience, 9: 322-329.

Abu Amra, H.E., 2018. A survey of marine bony fishes of the Gaza Strip, Palestine (Doctoral dissertation, Dr. Abdel Fattah N. Abd Rabou).Adawi, S.H. 2012. Presence of Aedes albopictus in Palestine – West Bank. International Journal of Tropical Disease & Health, 2(4) 301-310.

Amr et al. (2018). Systematics, distribution and ecological analysis of rodents in Jordan. Zootaxa, 4397 (1): 1-94

Awad, S.I. 2016. Invasive alien birds in Palestine bird biodiversity. This Week in Palestine, 26-31.

Bodenheimer, F.S. 1958. The present taxonomic status of the terrestrial mammals of Palestine. Bulletin of the Research Council of Israel, 7b:165-190.

Carter, J. & Leonard., B.P. 2002. A review of the literature on the worldwide distribution, spread of, and efforts to eradicate the coypu (Myocastor coypus). Wildlife Society Bulletin, 30:162-175.

Dufour-Dro, J. 2013. Israel's Least Wanted Alien Ornamental Plant Species. Ornamental plants potentially invasive in israel's natural ecosystems. 21 pp.

Ginsberg, P. 2006. Restoring Biodiversity To Pine Afforestations In Israel. Journal For Nature Conservation, 14, 207-216.

Handal, E.N. & Qumsiyeh, M.B. 2019. First record of the Western Conifer Seed Bug, Leptoglossus occidentalis Heidemann, 1910 (Hemiptera, Coreidae), from Palestine. Jordan Journal of Biological Sciences, 12:657 – 658

Handal, E.N. 2017. First record of Deroplax silphoides (Thunberg, 1783) from the West Bank – Palestine. Entomologia Hellenica. 26: 13-16.

Handal, E.N. and Qumsiyeh, M.B. 2021. Status and Distribution   of the invasive Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus, 1766) in the   Occupied Palestinian Territories (West Bank), Sandgrouse, in press.

Kehat, M. 1999. Threat to date palms in Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian Authority, by the red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus. Phytoparasitica, 27: 241-242.

Kettunen, M., Genovesi, P., Gollasch, S., Pagad, S., Starfinger, U., ten Brink, P. and Shine, C., 2009. Technical support to EU strategy on invasive alien species (IAS). Institute for European Environmental Policy (IEEP), Brussels.

Levine, J. M. 2000. Species diversity and biological invasions: Relating local process to community pattern. Science.288 (5467), 852–854.

Mendel, Z. & Protasov, A. 2019. The entomofauna on Eucalyptus in Israel: A review. European Journal of Entomology, 116: 450–460.

Mori, E., Meini, S., Strubbe, D., Ancillotto, L., Sposimo, P. and Menchetti, M., 2018. Do alien free-ranging birds affect human health? A global summary of known zoonoses. Invasive Species and Human Health, 1st ed.; Mazza, G., Tricarcio, E., Eds, pp.120-129.

Pimentel, D., McNair, S., Janecka, J., Wightman, J., Simmonds, C., O'Connell, C., Wong, E., Russel, L., Zern, J., Aquino, T. and Tsomondo, T. 2001. Economic and environmental threats of alien plant, animal, and microbe invasions. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 84: 1–20

Roll, U. Dayan, T., Simberloff, D. & Goren, M. 2007. Characteristics of the introduced fish fauna of Israel. Biological Invasions, 9:813–824.

Roll, U. Dayan, T., Simberloff, D. & Mienis, H.K. 2009. Non-indigenous land and freshwater gastropods in Israel. Biological Invasions, 11:1963–1972.

Roll, U., Dayan, T. and Simberloff, D., 2007a. Non-indigenous insect species in Israel and adjacent areas. Biological Invasions, 9(6), pp.629-643.

Roll, U., Dayan, T. and Simberloff, D., 2008. Non-indigenous terrestrial vertebrates in Israel and adjacent areas. Biological Invasions, 10(5), pp.659-672.

Roll, U., Dayan, T., Simberloff, D. and Goren, M., 2007b. Characteristics of the introduced fish fauna of Israel. Biological Invasions, 9(7), pp.813-824.

Roll, U., Dayan, T., Simberloff, D. and Goren, M., 2007b. Characteristics of the introduced fish fauna of Israel. Biological Invasions, 9(7), pp.813-824.

Roll, U., Dayan, T., Simberloff, D. and Mienis, H.K., 2009. Non-indigenous land and freshwater gastropods in Israel. Biological Invasions, 11(8), pp.1963-1972.

Roll, U., Dayan, T., Simberloff, D. and Mienis, H.K., 2009. Non-indigenous land and freshwater gastropods in Israel. Biological Invasions, 11(8), pp.1963-1972.

Sandlund, O. T. and P. Johan (editors) 1999.  Invasive Species and Biodiversity Management. Kluwer Academic Publishers

Verner, Dorte (Editor). 2012. Adaptation to a Changing Climate in the Arab Countries: A Case for Adaptation Governance and Leadership in Building Climate Resiliance. The World Bank, Washington, DC

Ziska, L.H. and Dukes, J.S. eds., 2014. Invasive species and global climate change (Vol. 4). CABI.

Vulnerable ecosystems in Palestine essentially include the whole area of the WB and Gaza. This is because the areas are very small and already heavily populated including the refugees from 1948. The EQA tries to manage the remaining open areas by designating and protecting KBAs and a national system of Protected Areas. Thus to see more details on management of these vulnerable ecosystems please see ABT 11. Gaza is most particularly vulnerable from an environmental standpoint. Baalousha (2006) used GIS and the DRASTIC measures of vulnerability to show that many areas in Gaza Strip are susceptible to significant water pollution damage. The sewage running in Wadi next to areas of population like two refugee camps (Nuseirat and AlBurj) also causes health problems (see e.g. Mourad 2004; Abu Naser et al. 2007) and causes other health risks and diseases (OCHA link). 72% of Gaza's Mediterranean coastline has been designated as highly polluted due to untreated sewage being pumped into the sea (https://www.palestine-studies.org/en/node/232141). Intervention in Gaza to solve this issue in 2018: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/03/12/north-gaza-communities-will-finally-benefit-from-sewage-treatment-services. There are small scale desalination projects by reverse osmosis in Gaza but these have their own environmental issues (Assaf, 2001). The situation for sewage management in the occupied Palestinian areas is critical. In Gaza, over 100,000 cm sewage flows untreated to the Mediterranean Sea every day (Ashour et al., 2009; OCHA 2019). Wastewater and other pollutants also heavily impact ecological integrity and socioeconomic issues in this valley (Abu Shaban 2002; Shanban and Saleh, 2002; Rabah 2013; Roskin and Bergman 2013; Saleh et al. 2013; Ubeid et al. 2016). 

Another vulnerable ecosystem is the hills surrounding Jerusalem. To the East of Jerusalem is wilderness part of the IBA for migrating birds routes. To the South of Jerusalem is a critical habitat that includes Wadi Cremisan and Wadi Al Makhrour (UNESCO World Heritage Site). These vulnerable systems are influenced by massive Israeli colonial settlements that ring Jerusalem.    

An updated National Action Plan (NAP) for the prevention of pollution of the Mediterranean Sea from land-based sources in Palestine has been formulated by EQA (2006) and the drafting process of the plan was implemented in four stages were NAP legal basis, Midterm baseline assessment (Wastewater, Marine area and solid waste), Identification of Gaps in enforcement of laws, policies and regulations, in addition to  NAP Operational Targets.

There were some plans to protect vulnerable ecosystems in Palestine including for example in the Uskar temporary pond at the buffer zone of Wadi Qana NR or in Wadi Quff NR. There efforts are limited by a number of factors including the Israeli occupation (Rotem and Weil 2014; Qumsiyeh and Abusarhan 2021; Qumsiyeh and Albardeya 2021)

Conclusion: The limited size of the area under coverage allows us to say that most of our area is a vulnerable ecosystem. Most vulnerable ecosystems in our are is the Mediterranean sea off the cost of Gaza and the Israeli occupation limits ability to manage this ecosystem as well as Israeli policies that results in additional pollution on the vulnerable areas. Also, the lost of forest cover discussed in ABT 5 has to be addressed in managing this most fragile ecosystem. 

In this section we will cover areas of biodiversity importance including hotspots and protected areas. Palestine (West Bank & Gaza Strip) is very rich in biodiversity including more than 50 sites were identified as a biodiversity hot-spots, these sites were included in the national spatial plan for protection from any change or land use (SP 2014). The investigation of these sites were carried out in 1996, which is now outdated, and needs a new investigation and assessment. EQA signed an agreement with the Belgium cooperation to re-assess and re-evaluate the situation of the biodiversity hotspots with main objective to re-delineate the borders of these sites and producing new maps to be included into the national spatial plan, for the benefit of the local communities and easing of the pressures they suffer from the spatial plan.” This quote from the 5th national report showed the areas which have now been addressed through some actions (2015-2020).  

The nature reserves/protected areas in Palestine fall mostly under area C based on the classifications of the Oslo Accords which means direct Israeli military and civilian control. While these arrangements were supposed interim for 5 years they have now gone for over 27 years. 

Nineteen protected areas were partially or wholly turned over to the Palestinian National Authority and only 15 of them recognized and seven others were added by the Environmental Quality Authority in 2010 for a total of 22. In 2015, the Palestinian ministerial committee approved a list of 49 protected areas. In the spatial plan the number became 51. Most of these fall in parts of the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT) that are under direct control by the occupying power. In effect only eight protected areas totaling less than 15 sq km are under Palestinian effective control making management difficult (see also Garstecki et al. 2010; Qumsiyeh & Amr, 2016).

The Environmental law chapter five article 40 concerns the Protection of Natural, Historical and Archaeological Areas which states that the Ministry of Environment (subsequently EQA) shall coordinate with competent agencies to prescribe bases and standards for the protection of natural reserves and national parks, monitor and declare them, and establish and designate the national parks and supervise them. Moreover, article (44) states that it shall be forbidden for any person to conduct activities or perform any action that may cause damage to the natural reserves, forests, public parks or archaeological sites, or affect the esthetical aspects of such areas.

Garstecki et al. (2010) categorized the evaluated protected areas in the Palestinian Territories according to the IUCN categories for protected areas. Of the 22 evaluated candidate protected areas, one was listed under category V as Protected Landscape, three under category III as natural monuments, four under category I as strict protected areas, and 14 under category IV as managed reserves.

Table: List of protected areas handed over to the Palestinian Authority under the Oslo agreements (Garstecki et al., 2010). Area is area handed over in dunums and not the total area of the potential protected area.

The most recent update of the protected areas in Palestine shows 51 protected areas which account for 515 km2 and the total area of WB and Gaza is 6020 km2 so that is about 9% of the State of Palestine.

Important Plant Areas: Al Shaikh (2011) identified six Important Plant Areas of the West Bank. These areas host a variety of plant species many are considered endemic to Palestine. In general, the Palestinian IPAs are dominated by maquis vegetation, with trees such as the Palestinian Pistachio (Pistacia palaestina), Palestine Buckthorn (Rhamnus palaestinus), Palestine Oak (Quercus calliprinos) and Boissier Oak (Q. boisseri). Much more work is needed on these issues in Palestine (Al-Shaikh and Qumsiyeh 2021).

Figure Nature Reserves Map (simplified)

Important Bird Areas: Four IBA’s (Table 2) are recognized by Bird-life International (BI) with a total area of about 21,500 ha (http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/country/palestinian-authority-territories/ibas ).

Table: IBA’s of the Palestinian Territories (Source: Birdlife International)

The world’s protected areas have grown in terms of land and designated protected areas but there are many remaining challenges to having them provide a critical safeguard against habitat loss and other human activities that decrease biodiversity (Chape et al. 2008). In this chapter we will review the rich biodiversity areas, including Important Plant Areas (IPAs), Important Bird Areas (IBAs), Wetland, and natural forests and go into the issue of protected areas in the State of Palestine. Details on the existing protected areas and proposed reserves are discussed with areas of potential to be designated as protected areas.

The IUCN did a survey of biodiversity in 2010 for 15 protected areas (Al-Hashmee, Deir Ammar, Ein Darra, Fahmeh, Jabal Alkabeer, Jesrualem Wilderness, Sheikh katrawny, Sheikh zeyd, Shoubash, Sirris, Tammoun, Tayyasir, Um Al Tut, Wadi Al Dilb, Wadi Zarqa Ulwi). This study (Garestecki et al., 2010) will be built on and developed into network of protected areas in 2021.

Figure: Key Biodiversity areas

Clearly protected area coverage from the KBAs is small (Figure). Spatial overlaps between digital polygons for Protected Areas and KBAs are done per global standards (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/files/Metadata-15-01-02.pdf), and https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/files/Metadata-15-04-01.pdf 

Many new studies start to appear on the biodiversity, environment, and conservation of protected areas in the West Bank of Palestine after the fifth national report in 2015 or where not mentioned in that report.

Wadi Quff in Hebron Governorate: As a conservation first move in Palestine, a management plan for Wadi Quff was published (EQA, 2014). The area was studied well (Qumsiyeh et al., 2016; Qumsiyeh and Amr, 2016; Khalilieh, 2016; Al-Shaikh and Mahassna, 2016; Qumsiyeh, 2016). Forested area degradation and fires happen frequently (ARIJ 2016).

Wadi Zarka AL Ulwi (on the borders between Ramallah and Salfit): An intensive study for the fauna and flora of this area was done by the Palestine Museum of Natural History and the Palestine Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainability, this study translated in a report send to the EQA and related ministries and stakeholders, an education awareness for local on biodiversity and the important of the area done (PMNH 2018)

Wadi Janata (Al Hashimy): A survey for biodiversity conducted by the PCC under the supervision by Mrs. Roubina Ghattas, provided a management plan that includes fauna, flora, threats, conservation, ecotourism and others (PCC, 2018).

Jinsafout pond, buffer Zone for Wadi Qana: A study was done on a temporarily rain water pond in Jinsafut village near the Wadi Qana protected area. This area shows a important species of fauna and flora only found in this pond from the West Bank and never recorded before elsewhere. This includes the Pond Water-crowfoot (Ranunculus peltatus) and the Syrian spade-foot toad (Pelobates syriacus) (PIBS, 2018).

Wadi Al Makhrour: This is part of al Quds Key biodiversity area and not a nature reserve yet. It may be important as a protected area in the future according to the IUCN protocol and as the last green area in Bethlehem District, given that the Valley is part of a UNESCO heritage site with Battier Village. The area was studied intensively by experts in biodiversity who developed some management and protection plans for habitat protection and ecotourism (Ghattas et al. 2019; Handal and Qumsiyeh 2019, 2021; Handal et al. 2018; Pahl and Qumsiyeh 2021; Qumsiyeh and Abusarhan 2020, 2021; Qumsiyeh et al. 2021, Thaler 2020). Battir was also recognized as a World Heritage Site in the year 2014. However, the UNESCO state of conservation report 2017 placed Battir and its landscapes on the list of WHS in Danger, as it is affected by a number of threats including: (1) changes in traditional ways of life and knowledge systems, (2) changes in local population and community identity and social cohesion,(3) invasive/alien terrestrial species and (4) potential construction of a separation wall (http://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/3541). Any efforts that would reduce these threats are highly welcomed by UNESCO. See also Abu Hammad (2016).

Far’a and Jerash: an integrated watershed management plan was developed and partially implemented (EQA + MoENV 2004 and stakeholder feedback)

Wadi Gaza: Located in the Eastern Mediterranean biodiversity hot-spot, it's recognized by the BirdLife International as an IBA and a station point for the migratory bird routes (Skinner and Zalewski 1995; EQA 2002; HSF 2017). This site is on the tentative list of UNESCO world heritage sites (https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5722/). Earlier reviews of its validity as a protected area exists (Awadallah 2000). A study was done to fix much of the challenges of Wadi Gaza to opportunities by creating a nature reserve for eco-tourism (AlAgha 2003). The Palestinian Authority established the Wadi Gaza protected area in June 2000 containing 1.25 km2 coastal wetland but is an area of great promise with limited studies (Auda et al., 2009; Rabou et al. 2015). But plans and structures for protection do exist albeit not implemented (MedWetCoast 2003; UGEC 2004; EQA 2015). There is a lot of interest to conserve the natural and cultural heritage of Wadi Gaza (UNDP/SDE 2002; Sadeq 2005). A management plan for the valley was produced (MedWetCoast 2003). A training program/capacity building also existed for the area since 2004 despite that Palestine  did not sign the Ramsar Convention (https://medwet.org/2014/01/training-program-on-the-sustainable-development-of-coastal-areas-for-the-mena-region/ ). It seems there are few regulations or enforcement of conservation measures for example on the use of pesticides in the area (AbdRabou et al 2002) or in general ecological knowledge of inhabitants (AbdRabou et al 2002; AbdRabou et al. 2015a). Of course some of these studies are old and need to be updated. Some interest in using collections is starting in Gaza (e.g. see AbRabou, 2020). There is also an interest indeed at least among local people in preservation and management (see also Goodson, 1999; Assaf 2001; Atrash 2003 Asfour and Hathat 2016).

There are other plans that are not implemented in other valleys that could impact biodiversity. For example, in Wadi Nar/Kidron master plans https://bit.ly/39vTmN7. There are current plans for a network of protected areas that would be better managed but much of this is dependent on acquiring full sovereignty by the State of Palestine. 

Palestine adopted a National Spatial Plan (NSP) which includes protection of natural resources and historic sites as well as protected areas (SP 2014). The Ministerial Cabinet approved the NSP in January 2014 (http://www.nsp.pna.ps/en/) in order to balance intended development with the protection of limited natural resources to ensure sustainability for future generations. The NSP included limits on land use and proposed that there would be high and medium sensitivity areas for agriculture, for open spaces, for forests, for biodiversity and natural conservation areas, for cultural and historical areas, and for archaeological sites. Implementation of the plan began in 2014 but one way to spur implementation is to merge the NSP with the Palestinian National Development Plan whose first key policy priority is: “In line with the two-state solution and on the basis of the 1967 border, establish state sovereignty and assert control over natural resources. Special attention will be paid to area C, particularly the Jordan Valley and Dead Sea Area, as well as to development of East Jerusalem and Gaza” (MOPAD, 2014). In addition, MOPAD, EQA, MOA, and other government agencies must implement the policies they have already agreed to especially in terms of protection of key areas.

The protected riparian areas around the Dead Sea like Ain Fashkha are impacted by the declining level of the Dead Sea (an inland lake) which is in turn due to diversion of the Jordan Valley Basin water to the western areas via the so-called "Israel National Water Carrier" (figure below). 

Figure: Decline in level of Dead Sea and thus decrease in its coastal perimeter (SP 2020)

The Jordan River basin needs special attention. Significant depletion of its water was done because of mega-projects like the draining of the Hula Wetlands and the diversion of significant amount of water from upstream (Lake Tiberias) (Messerschmidt and Shelby 2015; Figure). 

Figure: Aquifers in our area and their drainage – most of the water is taken by Israel from Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria (Messerschmidt and Shelby 2015)

This resulted in significand decline in the level of water in the Dead Sea, and in land salty lake at the lowest point on earth (Salameh and El-Naser 2008; see Figure). The Red Sea – Dead Sea canal and major projects surrounding it is not a good project (see Rosenberg 2011) and will significantly harm biodiversity (Qumsiyeh and Amr, manuscript in preparation).

Figure: Palestinian natural resources like dead sea minerals are exploited for benefit of illegal settlers contrary to international law (Al Haq 2012).

Conclusion: In brief our protected areas and areas of significant important to them (like the Jordan valley) are very limited in space (only 9% of the land is technically but not really protected). Much more remains to be done on this issue starting with allowing the local people to have sovereignty on their land and natural resources (i.e. ending the Israeli occupation). For more on this subject see Qumsiyeh and Amr (2016) and Qumsiyeh and Albardeya (2021). The State of Palestine is currently engaged in developing a network of protected areas and adjusting management plans to meet the NSP and is also engaged in updating its NBSAP. This will have significant positive effect on protected areas provided the SP is given sovereignty over its land and Sea. 

References: 

Abd Rabou, A. N. 2020. The Palestinian marine and terrestrial vertebrate fauna preserved at the Biology Exhibition, Islamic University of Gaza, bombarded by the Israeli Army in December, 2008. Israa University Journal of Applied Science (IUGAS), 4(1), 9-51.

Abd Rabou, A. N. et al. 2002. Awareness of farmers towards pesticides use in the Gaza Strip. The Egyptian Journal of Community Medicine. Vol.20 No.2

Abd Rabou, A.F.N., Yassin, M.M., Al-Agha, M.R., Hamad, D.M. and Ali, A.K.S., 2015. The avifauna of Wadi Gaza Nature Reserve, Gaza Strip-Palestine. IUG Journal of Natural Studies, 15(1):39-55.

Abd Rabou, AFN, MM Yassin, MR Al-Agha, DM Hamad, and AKS Ali. 2015. The Avifauna of Wadi Gaza Nature Reserve, Gaza Strip-Palestine. IUG Journal of Natural Studies, 15(1).

Abu Hammad, A. 2016. Identification of important landscape areas in Palestine: the case of Battir area.International Journal of Planning, Urban, and sustainable Development 3(2):1-16

Al Shaikh, B. 2011. Occupied Palestinian Territories. In: Important Plant Areas of the south and east Mediterranean region: priority sites for conservation. Radford, E.A., Catullo, G. and Montmollin, B. de. (eds.). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Malaga, Spain. Gland, Switzerland and Malaga, Spain: IUCN. VIII + 108 pp

Al Sheikh, B. and M. Mahassneh. 2016. Flora of Wadi Al-Quff Protected Area, Hebron Governorate, Palestine. Jordan Journal of Natural History, Special issue 1, 3: 47-57

ARIJ 2016. Status Of Environment In OPT 2015 Http://Www.Arij.Org/Latest-News/779-The-Status-Of-Env-2015-2016.Html

Asfour, O. & Hathat, A. (2016). Strategies of Sustainable Rural Development in the Gaza Strip: Wadi Gaza Town as a Case Study.

Assaf, S. A. 2001. Existing And The Future Planned Desalination Facilities In The Gaza Strip Of Palestine And Their Socio-Economic And Environmental Impact. Desalination, 138, 17-28.

Assaf, S. A. 2001. Existing And The Future Planned Desalination Facilities In The Gaza Strip Of Palestine And Their Socio-Economic And Environmental Impact. Desalination, 138, 17-28.

Atrash, Imad. 2003. Wildlife Field Guide of Wadi Gaza. Wadi Gaza Environmental Awareness. Palestine Wildlife Society et al. Funded by Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation. Bilingual Arabic-English, about 100pp. each language.

Auda, M.M.A., El-Sahhar, K.F. & Deeb, N.Y., 2009. Phytosociological Attributes Of Wadi Gaza Area, Gaza Strip, Palestine. International Journal Of Botany. Available At: Http://Agris.Fao.Org/Agris-Search/Search.Do?Recordid=Dj2012083473 [Accessed May 24, 2016]

Awadallah, A. 2000. Wadi Gaza landscape protection area. M.Sc. Thesis, Agricultural University of Norway (NLH), Oslo, Norway. 85.

Chape, S., M. Spalding, And M. Jenkins. 2008. The World’s Protected Areas: Status, Values, And Prospects in The Twenty-First Century. University Of California Press, Berkeley 

EQA + MoENV 2004. The Fara'a and Jerash Integrated watershed Management Project, Inception Report. Environmental Quality Authority.

EQA 2014. Management Plan for Wadi Al Quff Protected Area. Environmental Quality Authority. https://environment.pna.ps/ar/files/Management%20Plan%20for%20Wadi%20Al-Quff%20Reserve.pdf

Garstecki, T., Al-Rabi, T., Mahassneh, M. & Mezyed, B. 2010. Assessment Of Some Palestinian Nature Reserves. International Union For Conservation of Nature.

Goodson, J. 1999. Re-use of RO concentrate to improve water quality at Wadi Gaza. Gaza, Palestine. 

Khalilieh, Anton. 2016b. Fauna of Wadi Al-Quf: Birds. Jordan Journal of Natural History,, 3: 47-57

Messerschmid, C. And Selby, J. 2015. Misrepresenting The Jordan River Basin. Water Alternatives 8(2): 258-279

MOPAD 2014. State of Palestine National Development Plan 2014-2016. http://www.mopad.pna.ps/en/images/PDFs/Palestine%20State_final.pdf

PIBS. 2018. Socio-Economic Sustainable Development and Environmental Conservation at The Northern Transition Zone to Wadi Qana Protected Area, Palestine. Palestine Museum of Natural History – Bethlehem University, pp.38.

PMNH 2018. Actions for Environmental Sustainability in Wadi Al-Zarqa Al-Ulwi. B     ethlehem University, Palestine https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325176835_Actions_for_Environmental_Sustainability_in_Wadi_Al-Zarqa_Al-Ulwi

Qumsiyeh, M, A. Khalilieh, I. M. Albaradeiya, and B. Al-Shaikh 2016. Biodiversity Conservation Of Wadi Al-Quf Area, Occupied Palestinian Territories: Challenges and Opportunities. Jordan Journal of Natural History, Volume 3, Special issue 1, 3: 6-24.

Qumsiyeh, M.B. 2016a. Fauna of Wadi Al-Quf: Invertebrates. Jordan Journal of Natural History, Volume 3, In Press

Qumsiyeh, M.B. 2016b. Fauna of Wadi Al-Quf: Amphibians, Reptiles and Mammals. Jordan Journal of Natural History, Volume 3, In Press.

Qumsiyeh, M.B. and Amr, S., 2016. Protected Areas in the Occupied Palestine Territories. Jordan Journal of Natural History (3), pp.25-46.

Qumsiyeh, M.B. and I.M. Albardeya. (2021 in press) Palestinian environment: Threats and opportunities. Confluences Méditerranée

Rosenberg, D.E., 2011. Raising the Dead without a Red Sea-Dead Sea project? Hydro-economics and governance. Hydrology and earth system sciences, 15(4), pp.1243-1255.

Salameh, E. and El-Naser, H., 2008. Restoring the Shrinking Dead Sea—The Environmental Imperative—. In Climatic changes and water resources in the Middle East and North Africa (pp. 453-468). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Skinner, J. and Zalewski, S. (1995): Functions and values of Mediterranean wetlands. MedWet – Conservation of Mediterranean Wetlands, Tour du Valat, France, 78 pp

SP 2014. National Spatial Plan المخطط الوطني لحماية الموارد الطبيعية والمعالم التاريخية– دولة فلسطين 2014 https://info.wafa.ps/userfiles/server/pdf/p.n.p.pdf

SP 2020. Atlas of Sustainable Development 2020. Ramallah, Palestine

UNDP/SDE (2002). The cultural heritage and the ecotourism in the Gaza Valley. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in cooperation with the Sustainable Development and Environment Society (SDE), Gaza Strip, 16 pp.

The 1999 Environmental law’s chapter five article 41 concerns the conservation of species and prevents their extinction through prohibiting the hunting, killing, or catching of birds, marine and wild animals, and the fish. Moreover, it is prohibited to possess, transport, walk with, sell or offer them for sale neither dead nor alive, or to damage their nests or the eggs. Article (42) of chapter 5 indicates that the Ministry of Environment (subsequently EQA) in coordination with the competent agencies, shall specify the conditions necessary to guarantee the preservation of biodiversity in Palestine. Article (43) states that the Ministry, in coordination with the competent agencies, shall set the bases and standards that determine the plants, wild and woodland ones which are forbidden by these standards to be, temporarily or permanently, picked up, harvested, damaged or cut off to ensure their endurance and continuation.

Significant but still undetermined proportion of Palestinian flora and fauna are rare, endangered, or threatened. Below is a description of known (limited) data on the matter and some of the issues around this ABT. The IUCN Species Range Rarity Index for Palestine shows that the Eastern Slopes of the West Bank include some rare species higher than other areas (figure below). 

The IUCN Threatened Species Richness on the other hand shows that much more work is needed in the northern West Bank (figure below)

Flora

“There is only national list of threatened species available for Palestinian flora and there is no national list for Palestinian threatened fauna due to lack of comprehensive surveys of fauna species. There are two published lists of threatened plants: one Israeli and one Palestinian. Based on IUCN global guidelines and criteria and Red List publications there are only 24 species listed as globally threatened as published on the official website of IUCN Red List. From these 24 species there are: 10 birds, 4 reptiles, 3 mammals, 2 fishes, 2 molluscs, 1 amphibian, 2 other invertebrates, and there is no plant recorded in the IUCN Red List website although there are two published lists of threatened plants as indicated earlier” EQA 5th CBD NR (2015).

There is only national list of threatened species available for Palestinian flora and there is no national list for Palestinian threatened fauna due to lack of comprehensive surveys of fauna species. There are two published lists of threatened plants in Palestine (Ali-Shtayeh and Jamous 2018; Al-Shaikh and Qumsiyeh 2021). The latter study consolidated data in meta-analysis and identified 600 species that are of concern in the Israeli occupied West Bank of which 187 are endangered (found in 1-3 sites), 171 very rare species (found in 4-10 sites), 238 rare (found in 11-30 sites), and four already extinct in this area. Plants thus provide the loudest alarm bell for a deteriorating environment in need of protection. Protection is feasible: 1) in situ in the declared protected areas which are just beginning to be studied and managed properly, 2) in situ in special areas of rich biodiversity that would be informally protected, 3) ex situ in botanic gardens such as those at PIBS and BERC. IUCN and the Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP) unified classification of direct threats for SP red plants has shown a high extinction risk to the Palestinian threatened wild flora, with 76.5% of the threatened species were either critically endangered CR or endangered EN; only 23.5% were vulnerable VU. However, several taxa are threatened by numerous factors including human activities, and global climatic change.

Fauna

Based on IUCN global guidelines and criteria and Red List publications there are only 24 vertebrate species listed as globally threatened as published on the official website of IUCN Red List. From these 24 species there are: 10 birds, 4 reptiles, 3 mammals, 2 fishes, 2 molluscs, 1 amphibian, 2 other invertebrates. On one hand, among the 130 mammals almost all of the higher mammals are on the Red Data List labeled as threatened, extinct or rare. It was reported that seven mammalian species have gone extinct since 50 years ago, for instance, the Cheetah Acynonyx jupatus, Syrian Brown Bear Ursus arctos syriacus, Mesopotamian Fallow Deer Dama mesopatomica, and Roe Deer Capreulus capreulus. Currently, there are only 200 hyenas inhabiting Palestine. Among reptiles the extinct species is the Nile crocodile. The Gaza Environmental Profile (Gaza Environmental Profile, 1994) had identified the sea turtle species Caretta caretta (Loggerhead turtle) and Chelonia mydas (Green turtle) as existing in the coastal region of Gaza Strip. (MOPIC, 1996).However, these species and their eggs face extreme danger due to hunting and collecting. It was demonstrated that there are two dolphin species in the Gaza strip; the Bottlenose Dolphin Tursiops truncatus and the Common Dolphin Delphinus delphis. Moreover, the status of the Monk seals; Monachus monachus remains unclear . (Gaza Environmental Profile, 1994). Among the 373 reported bird species in Palestine (West Bank and Gaza Strip 6220 KM²), there are four birds considered extinct species: Ostrich (Struthio camelus), Brown Fish Owl (Bubo zeylonensis),while the other two extinct birds are breeders: Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus) and Lappet-faced Vulture (Torgos tracheliotus). It is reported that almost all amphibians in Palestine are endangered due to intensive farming, degradation of wetland habitats in the Dead Sea basin, the Gaza Strip and the degradation of fresh and grey water, rivers and Wadi systems. It was detected that the drying of the main wadis and the exhaustive use of remaining water resources in the Gaza Strip has rendered amphibian life to be in danger. It was found out that execution of wildlife management plans has complex difficulties due to the current Israeli the occupation power in Palestine. Some of the critical obstacles that hinder wildlife conservation and reintroduction are hunting, agricultural expansion and poverty. Furthermore, the weakness in applying wildlife protection laws is obvious and needs to be enhanced.

It was demonstrated that the main focus of biotechnology research activities is restricted to agriculture mainly tissue culture of which some of its applications are related to endangered species, dates, wheat and Barley, Royal Irises, wild species of economic concerns, also biological control of agricultural pests and insects, disease-free grapes, diagnostic studies on the genetic polymorphism of the causes of pests, yeast and enzymes (plant by-products, enzyme production by bacteria, monoclonal antibodies for diagnosis, etc.), genetic engineering and their tests (fingerprinting of dates, GMOs, etc.), veterinary medicine and animal production (use of hormones, animal feed improvements, in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer, etc., and biofertilizers such as the uses of olive cakes and dairy cattle manures for biogas production, etc. Research work is also going on the application of new technology for animal disease diagnosis.(Unpublished, Palestine Biosafety assessment Report 2021, EQA)

BirdLife International, IUCN and UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (2019) listed IUCN status for species in Palestine (Table). By 2020 the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented and their conservation status, particularly of those most in decline, has been improved and sustained. The unique geography and geology of Palestine results in the likelihood of presence of many more endemic and threatened species than described above. There are significant shortages of data relating especially to Molluscs, arachnids, and insects (dominant groups). For example, it is impossible that we have only one species of endemic land snails and three Mantodea. Below table shows what is currently available but much more work is needed on the flora and fauna of Palestine. 614 species were assessed by this group and 36 of them were found to be threatened, including 26 vertebrates and 6 plants (BirdLife International, IUCN and UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 2019).

In the red list area, Palestine has an index of 0.8 (globally 1 means all species categorized as least concern and 0 means all species are endangered). The figure below shows Red List Index of species survival for this country, weighted by the fraction of each species’ distribution occurring within the country. Grey shading shows 95% confidence intervals. The index varies from 1 if the country has contributed the minimum it can to the global RLI (i.e. if all species in the country are classified as Least Concern) to 0 if the country has contributed the maximum it can to the global RLI (i.e., if all species in the country are classified as Extinct or Possibly Extinct). A downward trend indicates declining aggregate survival probability of the country's species. The index is based on all mammals, birds, amphibians, reef-building corals and cycads native to the country (noting that not all countries support species in all these groups). However, such index for Palestine needs to be reexamined with additional data because it is based on very limited/poor quality data. 

BirdLife International, IUCN and UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 2019

The EQA reports 39 species which are listed in IUCN red list as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable (SP 2020b; Figure) but the number to be listed locally threatened is much higher. Additionally, while the number appears lower than nearby countries, when adjusted for sized this difference nearly disappears. 

Figure: Threatened species per global IUCN designations regionally (SP 2020b)

Figure : IUCN Red List data for local and regional species (IUCN 2015, World Bank 2019)

There are many threats that causes species to decline to point of potential listing on the red list. In Palestine, the most significant threats are anthropogenic (see figure below).

Figure: Threats to vulnerable species in Palestine (BirdLife International, IUCN and UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 2019)

However, the threats to different taxonomy groups can be different (see figure below). 

Figure : Threats affecting different taxonomic groups (BirdLife International, IUCN and UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 2019)

Mitigation and protections

There were many disparate activities relating to protections from extinctions with varying successes. Here we will simply give few examples:

• The Syrian spade-footed toad Pelobatus syriacus was noted in one temporary (vernal) pond in the State of Palestine near Jinsafut. PIBS in cooperation with the EQA engaged in a study and local education on the matter to the local communities. The EQA subsequently designated the area (a buffer Zone for Wadi Qana Protected area) as protected. Signs were put up by EQA and PIBS. The actions were timely because the Israeli authorities were slated to build a road intersection in the area.
• The Hanns Seidel Foundation with the EQA developed a project to help Palestinian farmers by promoting the Barn owl populations. This includes installing artificial nesting areas in the Jordan Valley. The results were 35 installed barn owl boxes, 13 owls/chicks are ringed in the boxes; network of farmers maintaining the boxes. 
• •    The Hanns Seidel Foundation with the EQA developed plans to allow nesting of swifts which were damaged due to last restoration in Nativity Church and to raise awareness in the community about the importance of birds in maintaining environmental balance and to promote tourist awareness and observation. 77 nests were installed with speakers system for attracting the birds and 9 indoor workshops and outdoor birdwatching tours were held for students and scouts of Terra Sancta-Bethlehem.
• Since some 1/3rd of our plant species are vulnerable (rare or very rare or endangered) (AlSheikh and Qumsiyeh 2021), the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund supported a number of projects in 2021 for in situ and ex situ conservation of endangered plants and plant ecosystems (see https://www.birdlife.org/middle-east/news/growing-hope-plant-conservation-palestine). Similar projects are needed for animals.

Conclusion: There is still a significant amount of data to be collected on the threatened and endangered species in O=Palestine. Such baseline data will help produce better management plans for these species. Limited amount of work is done to protects certain areas and certain species. 

References

Ali-Shtayeh M.S. & Jamous R.M. 2002. Red List of Threatened Plants of West Bank and Gaza Strip and the Role of Botanic Gardens in their conservations. Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences Studies Series, No. (2).

Ali-Shtayeh M. S., & Jamous, R. M. 2018. Updating the Plant “Red List” of Palestine (West Bank and Gaza Strip): Conservation Assessment and Recommendations. Journal of Biodiversity and Endangered Species 6(3), 2332-2542.

Al-Sheikh, B. and M. B. Qumsiyeh. 2021 in press. Imperiled ecosystems in Palestine: Rare plants as Indicators. In Dominic DiPaolo & John Villella Imperiled: The Encyclopedia of Conservation” Elsevier

EQA 2015. State of Palestine Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Environmental Quality Authority, 133 pp. https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ps/ps-nr-05-en.pdf

IUCN (2015). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015-4. . Accessed 19 November 2015.

SP 2020b. Atlas of Sustainable Development 2020. Ramallah, Palestine

SP 2020c. Nationally Determined Contributions (Palestine) submitted to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) https://bit.ly/3cCVWSq

SP 2020d. Climate Resilient Transformation with the Green Climate Fund. Country Program submitted 2019 and endorsed by the GCF on 5 Nov 2020. https://www.greenclimate.fund/sites/default/files/document/country-programme-state-palestine.pdf

World Bank. 2019. West Bank and Gaza Environment Priorities Note. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/33935

Palestine is part of the fertile crescent where agriculture was first developed. Palestine’s local fauna and flora have several endemic species, thus, the preservation of genetic and agro-biodiversity is crucial. Very few studies and work exist in this area of agro-biodiversity in Palestine but some work has started: 

• Tesdel et al. (2020) did some work demonstrating the presence rich agricultural diversity
• Some work on heirloom seed protection( http://www.facebook.com/palestineheirloomseeds/ and https://viviensansour.com/Palestine-Heirloom).
• Some molecular studies have started and accelerated in the past few years (e.g. Abu Zaitoun et al. 2018; Jamous et al. 2020; Sawalha et al., 2008; Al-Fares and Abu-Qaoud 2012; Basheer-Salimia et al. 2013, 2014; Mujahed and Basheer-Salimia 2019).
• There is increasing interest in preserving local varieties of plants like wheat (e.g. Frankin et al. 2020), watermelon (Alimari et al. 2017) and olives (Abuzayed et al. 2018).
• There is no one central national gene bank in Palestine; however, there are several smaller gene banks dispersed across research centers in the West Bank. Gene banks in Palestine include the ones at the National Agricultural Research Center (NARC), the Biodiversity and Environmental Research Center (BERC), the Palestinian Agricultural Relief center (PARC), and the Union of Agricultural Working Committees (UAWC). The following link reveals the 26 organizations responsible in conserving seeds https://www.ecowatch.com/amp/seed-biodiversity-2646793187.

There has been some work done by the Ministry of Agriculture relevant to agro-biodiversity including development of a strategy (MoA 2005) and development of guides relating to this (MoA 2016). The protection of agrobiodiversity in our area of Western Asia is especially important because of the presence of many wild species that are ancestors of the domesticated species in this part of the Fertile Crescent (Al-Atawneh et al. 2008; Mazid et al. 2014, 2018). Some work in this regards is also relevant to local empowerment (Tesdell et al. 2019, 2020) including women empowerment (Abdelali-Martini et al. 2008).

Israel’s segregation wall caused strip clearing of land including forest and other natural vegetation clearing, with almost 39385 dunums of forested area is included in the Western and 1473 dunums in the Eastern segregation zone, forming 50.7% of its total area (Isaac and Hrimat, 2005). This barrier and other Israeli actions significantly damages agriculture including resiliency of traditional agro-biodiversity (Reynolds 2015).

Agriculture is a one of the important reasons of controlling biodiversity richness and conservation, growing native trees by the ministry of agriculture that help reducing habitat loss and facing desertification, in a way keeps habitat for other biodiversity groups from wild plants, medicinal plants and animals in both vertebrates and invertebrates (Isaac and Gasteyer, 1995). Each village or district in Palestine is known to be specified for a kind of agriculture product such as Beit Jalla for Apricot, Batter for eggplant, Beit Sahour and Salfit for Snake cucumber, which reflect the diversity of habitat and specialized climate for each product.

Figure: Soil types in Palestine 

Conclusion: This is certainly important but is less developed in our part of the world even as it is a critical part- being the earliest to domesticate plants and animals (Al-Atawneh et al. 2008). There are plans though not implemented related to development of agrobiodiversity in dry areas in our region (ICARDA 2005). 

References

Abdelali-Martini, M., Amri, A., Ajlouni, M., Assi, R., Sbieh, Y. and Khnifes, A., 2008. Gender dimension in the conservation and sustainable use of agro-biodiversity in West Asia. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 37(1), pp.365-383.

Abuzayed, M., Frary, A. and Doganlar, S., 2018. Genetic diversity of some Palestinian and Turkish olive (Olea europaea L.) germplasm determined with SSR markers. IUG Journal of Natural Studies, 26(1).

Al-Atawneh, N., Amri, A., Assi, R. and Maxted, N., 2008. Management plans for promoting in situ conservation of local agrobiodiversity in the West Asia centre of plant diversity. Crop wild relative conservation and use, pp.338-361.

Al-Atawneh, N., Amri, A., Assi, R. and Maxted, N., 2008. Management plans for promoting in situ conservation of local agrobiodiversity in the West Asia centre of plant diversity. Crop wild relative conservation and use, pp.338-361.

Al-Fares, H. and Abu-Qaoud, H., 2012. Molecular characterization of genetic diversity in some durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) in Palestine. African Journal of Biotechnology, 11(66), pp.12958-12963.

Alimari, A., Zaid, A. and Fadda, Z., 2017. Genetic diversity in local Palestinian watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) accessions. International Journal of Agricultural Policy and Research, 5(10), pp.157-162.

Amri, A., 2018. Importance of agrobiodiversity and options for promoting its onfarm conservation and sustainable use: Case of West Asia dryland agrobiodiversity project.

Awad, S. and Attum, O. 2017. The biodiversity value of olive groves in Palestine. Jordan Journal of Natural History, 4: 37-46 

Basheer-Salimia, R., Lorenzi, S., Batarseh, F., Moreno-Sanz, P., Emanuelli, F. and Grando, M.S., 2014. Molecular identification and genetic relationships of Palestinian grapevine cultivars. Molecular biotechnology, 56(6), pp.546-556.

Basheer-Salimia, R., Shtaya, M., Awad, M., Abdallah, J. and Hamdan, Y., 2013. Genetic diversity of Palestine landraces of faba bean (Vicia faba) based on RAPD markers. Genetics and Molecular Research 12 (3): 3314-3323

Frankin, S., Kunta, S., Abbo, S., Sela, H., Goldberg, B.Z., Bonfil, D.J., Levy, A.A., Avivi‐Ragolsky, N., Nashef, K., Roychowdhury, R. and Faraj, T., 2020. The Israeli–Palestinian wheat landraces collection: Restoration and characterization of lost genetic diversity. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 100(11), pp.4083-4092.

Handal, E. N. (2018: Master Thesis) Systematic Study, Ecology and Geographic Distribution of Land Snails (Mollusca) From the Occupied Palestinian Territories (West Bank), Berzit University.

ICARDA. 2005 CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF DRYLAND AGROBIODIVERSITY

Isaac, Jad, and Nader Hrimat. 2005. Assessing the impact of Israel's segregation wall on the palestinian agricultural biodiversity." ARIJ report.

Mazid, A., Shideed, K. and Amri, A., 2014. Assessment of on-farm conservation of dryland agrobiodiversity and its impact on rural livelihoods in the Fertile Crescent. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 29(4), pp.366-377.

Mazid, A., Shideed, K. and Amri, A., 2018. On-farm Agrobiodiversity in West Asia: Status, Threats and Impact on Rural Livelihoods.

Ministry of Agriculture 2005 Agro-biodiversity Strategy for Palestine.

Ministry of Agriculture 2016 دليل التنوع الحيوي الزراعي في فلسطين هيئة الأمم المتحدة للمرأة

Mujahed, A. and Basheer-Salimia, R., 2019. Molecular analysis of genetic diversity among different grape accessions using DNA markers. Journal of Biotech Research, 10, pp.190-198.

Reynolds, K., 2015. Palestinian agriculture and the Israeli separation barrier: The mismatch of biopolitics and chronopolitics with the environment and human survival. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 72(2), pp.237-255.

Sawalha, K., Laham, S.A., Hasasneh, H. and Mezeid, B., 2008. Genetic diversity studies on wheat landraces in Palestine using RAPD markers in comparison to phenotypic classification.. Journal of Applied Biological Sciences 2 (1): 29-34.

Tesdell, O., Othman, Y. and Alkhoury, S., 2019. Rainfed agroecosystem resilience in the Palestinian West Bank, 1918–2017. Agroecology and sustainable food systems, 43(1), pp.21-39.

Tesdell, O., Othman, Y., Dowani, Y., Khraishi, S., Deeik, M., Muaddi, F., Schlautman, B., Krug, A.S. and Van Tassel, D., 2020. Envisioning perennial agroecosystems in Palestine. Journal of Arid Environments, 175, p.104085.

The people of our country (all Palestinians) are the indigenous people. They are descendent of the Canaanites (first self depiction after invention of writing) who in turn descend from the first human settlements that moved from hunter-gatherer to agricultural and pastoral lifestyles (Qumsiyeh 2004). There has been limited work on the ecosystem services in the SP. Here we review some of the work and suggest potential development which will be taken into account in the NBSAP.

There is also a project related to the Production and consumption implemented through EQA which is the Ecotourism project including the identification of the ecotourism sites of the protected areas and the rich biodiversity sites and identification of the ecotourism trials for ecotourists.  In addition the project identifies the national priorities for the consideration of the ecotourism sites and the trials. The project also includes the rehabilitation of 10-sites of ecotourism importance and preparing lifts for the trials in 10-sites also (EQA 2018).

Ecotourism, cultural and landscape tourism could supplement religious and other classic tourism aspects in Palestine (Isaac 2010a, b, c; Tabash 2017). Tourism in Palestine was based on religion, political, and heritage, but in the past 5 years the term ecotourism have popularized among Palestinian, which aims to walk in a specific trail in nature, in protected areas. Thus on one hand the government started to mark the pathways and to study the effects of this tourism on the environment. While on the other hand, introducing the locals and even people from outside Palestine to our environment and biodiversity itself is a kind of environmental awareness (Qumsiyeh and Handal, 2018). Also, Quttaineh (2015) assessed developmental indicators for ecotourism in the West Bank – Palestine via a computational model that facilitates the indicators development and the evaluation of the destinations. 

HSF together with the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities and other Palestinian partners developed a project to mainstream ecotourism into the planning of the local Governmental units (municipalities and village councils) near the nature reserves. The aim is to Strengthening Sustainability in Municipal Politics and contribute to the local economic development of the villages and to the nature reserve’s conservation goals. The results included Establishment of “Palestine Ecotourism Society”; 6 workshops where 5 plans were developed by Municipalities; During the years, some municipalities started implementing their plans. HSF worked with Legal Consultant and the Ministry of Tourism for preparation of the legislative document to regulate ecotourism based on the outputs of the policy paper and consultation with the relevant institutions and submitted a list of secondary legislation necessary to implement the proposed tourism Law. 12 of 13 expert/stakeholders in our survey stated that ecotourism need better structuring/organization. 

The PCBS reported that unemployment rate in the Paslestinian areas is 27% (49% in Gaza). Individual share of GDP averaged $2804/year (down 15% from $3364 in 2019). One billion in tourism revenue was lost. Nearly 50% of students could not participate in remote educational activities.

Local ecosystem services also include indigenous people traditional use of medicinal and herbal plants from nature. Some of this was covered in the 5th NR (for references see ABT 18). Here we can only add that there is a need for protection of some of the species used because of over harvesting.  

Issues of water and use of water include increased pressure on ecosystems exacerbated by population growth and Israeli colonial activities. Rainfall in Palestinian areas (Figure below) indicates an abundance of water but there has been increased pressures on it.

Figure: Average annual rainfall 

Climate change will have a drastic impact on biodiversity and human well-being and sustainability (Harvell et al., 2002, Rinawati et al., 2013). Because ecosystems play a significant role in human well-being, human beings must address the challenge, especially that which threatens life on earth as we know it: climate change (UNDP, 2007). While the world is now fully aware of the potentially devastating impact of anthropogenic pressures on global biodiversity mostly via habitat alterations, there is a challenge of how to perform these studies and introduce the solutions (Rinawati et al., 2013). The effect of global warming will not be even around the world. The developing countries will suffer the most; the World Science Academies stated that “Developing nations that lack the infrastructure or resources to respond to the impacts of climate change will be particularly affected. It is clear that many of the world’s poorest people are likely to suffer the most from climate change. Long-term global efforts to create a more healthy, prosperous and sustainable world may be severely hindered by changes in the climate.”  

There are models that foresee more direful consequences in the Mediterranean zone (Sala et al., 2000). The World Bank issued a report showing that the Arab world is already severely suffering from climate change. The report shows an increase in annual average temperature in the last 20 years (Verner, 2012) and predicts a rise by 4 to 5 degrees in the next two to three decades as well as a decrease in annual rainfall by nearly 25% that would cause more frequent and severe droughts. Simulated models attempt to integrate species’ own responses (ecologically, genetically, etc.) in predicting changes in species distribution following climate change and its impact on the habitat (Lavergne et al., 2010). But preliminary data in Palestine in at least one study shows decline in vertebrate biodiversity as desertification spreads into the Bethlehem District (Qumsiyeh et al., 2014b). In our areas temperatures are expected to rise 2 C by 2050 and by up to 4.5 C by 2090 with concomitant decrease in annual rainfall by 20-25% at a minimum especially in the southern governorates (Morice et al., 2012, SP 2020b).

Climate change effects on food security and biodiversity is negative around the world including in Palestine (Salem 2010).

On the 17th of March 2016, the State of Palestine officially became the 197th party to the United Nations Framework Convention on The Climate Change (UNFCCC 1992). It also signed and ratified the Paris Agreement on the 22nd of April, 2016. Since this happened after the last (5th) NR to CBD, we articulate here the significant progress made since 2016. The objective of UNFCCC is to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere to a level that would cease devastating anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a level should be reached within a reasonable time frame to enable ecosystems to respond naturally to climate change, to guarantee that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner. Parties, including developing and developed countries, shall be guided by the following: 1) parties should protect the ecosystem for the present and future generation of humankind through taking precautionary measures to anticipate towards reducing the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects 2) developing countries parties should be given full consideration in light of the disproportionate burden that these parties would bear under the conviction 3) parties should promote sustainable development and integrate to national development programs that would enact policies and measures to protect the climate system against anthropic change 4) also parties should cooperate to develop open and supportive international economy that would empower and sustain the economic growth and development, specially developing parties.

The National Strategy, Action Programme & Integrated Financing Strategy to Combat Desertification in the Occupied Palestinian Territory identified four strategic objectives (EQA 2012):

1. To upgrade institutional, legal and human capacities and frameworks and to create the enabling policy environment
2. To improve awareness and attitude of the stakeholders and to seek maximum participation and partnership of the affected people and the private sector
3. Conservation and sustainable use of natural resources
4. To improve mobilization, efficiency and effectiveness of financial and technical resources

Each of the above-mentioned objectives was accompanied with a set of interventions that resulted in five projects with a proposed budget of USD 4.15 million.  

Figure: Climate Classification of the West Bank.

The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) developed The National Agricultural Sector Strategy (2017-2022) entitled by "Resilience and sustainable development" with a vision for “Sustainable agriculture; capable of competing locally and globally; and effectively contributes to strengthening food security, the bond between Palestinians and their land as well as their sovereignty over resources, towards building an Independent Palestinian State”. The main national Guiding Pivots for agricultural development are: First by intensifying efforts to work in Area (C) and Jerusalem. Second by addressing the impact of Israeli occupation policies and measures. Third by facilitating access to agricultural land, water and natural resources, as well as markets. Fourth by promoting investment in the agriculture sector, and strengthening public-private partnerships for this purpose and promoting innovation and adaptive solutions that mitigate the effects of climate change. Fifth by strengthening and supporting farmers’ organization and small-scale farmers-oriented agricultural organizations, particularly those with clear mandates and commitment to enhance the role and position of women and youth in agriculture. Sixth by the empowerment of the sector by MoA leadership which requires common consensus and partnership amongst all on the vision and sector priorities. Seventh by bringing the agriculture sector to the forefront of development priorities of both government and the donor community and providing the proper budgets and support and the strengthening contribution to and linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals, (SDGs) 2030. Lastly by joining the membership of international organizations, and ratifying international treaties and conventions.(Unpublished, Palestine Biosafety assessment Report 2021, EQA)

Table: The agricultural policies in SP

The state of Palestine took some measures to start monitoring its CO2 and other greenhouse emissions after the 2006 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change including establishing Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. The state of Palestine projected 18.1Mt CO2eq in 2040 under independence scenario and 9.1 Mt CO2eq in 2040 under status quo (political scenario).  The SP committed to reduce its CO2 emissions 24.4% by 2040 (vs status quo 12.8% relative to business as usual) conditional on receiving finances and technical support (SP 2020c)

Figure. State of Palestine conditional mitigation contribution (SP 2020c)

Table: National Greenhouse Gas Inventory in Palestine*, 2018 (PCBS http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/site/lang__en/745/default.aspx)

Gg: Giga gram which equals 1000 ton,

CO2: Carbon dioxide,

CH4: Methane (1 ton of CH4 equivallent to 21 ton of CO2),

N2O: Nitrous oxide (1 ton of N2O equivallent to 310 ton of CO2),

NO: Not Occurring,

NE: Not Estimated

*: For more details about the methodology, data quality and calculations, please refer to "Emissions to Air 2014" report on the following link: http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Downloads/book2205.pdf

*The data excludes those parts of Jerusalem governorate which were annexed by Israel in 1967.

Table: Greenhouse Gas Inventory by Sector and Emittent in Palestine* (Thousand ton of CO2 eq.), 2018 (PCBS http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/site/lang__en/745/default.aspx)

* Data exclude those parts of Jerusalem which were annexed by Israeli Occupation in 1967.

Table: Overall GHG Emissions in Palestine* by Year (1000 ton CO2 eq.), 2006- 2018 (PCBS http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/site/lang__en/745/default.aspx)

* Data exclude those parts of Jerusalem which were annexed by Israeli Occupation in 1967.

Table: Selected Indicators for Water Statistics in Palestine, 2016-2018 (PCBS http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/site/lang__en/745/default.aspx)

*Data excluded those parts of Jerusalem which were annexed by Israeli Occupation in 1967. Quantity in Million m3/Year

The State of Palestine recently completed its Initial National Communication Report1(INCR) and submitted it to the UNFCCC on November 11th 2016 highlighting its commitment to being an active player in tackling and responding to climate change (EQA 2016b) National Adaptation Plan (NAP) to Climate Change (EQA 2016c) lays out important ideas and programs.

Table: State of Palestine mitigation measures proposed conditional on support (EQA, 2017b; SP 2020c)

Table: State of Palestine mitigation measures implemented or ongoing (EQA, 2017b; SP 2020c)

Table: Issues ranked as highly vulnerable to climate change (EQA, 2017b; SP 2020c)

Table: Issues related to climate change being worked on/implemented (EQA, 2017b;SP 2020c)

Table Types of support needed for Climate Change action (EQA, 2017b; SP 2020c)

Table: Additional conditional mitigation actions needed for Climate Change action (EQA, 2017b; SP 2020c)

According to Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS, 2014), the quantity of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in 2018 estimated to be about 4,527.67 million tons, divided as 3.07 million tons resulted from the energy sector, 532 thousand tons from the agriculture sector, and 931 thousand tons from the waste sector. The emissions quantity increased from 1.644.188 ton\year in 2001 to 4,527.67 ton\year in 2018. 

Figure: Climate change aspects in Palestine (SP 2020b)

Figure Greenhouse gas emissions in Palestine (SP 2020b)

Figure: Sources of greenhouse gas emissions in Palestine (SP 2020b)

Figure: Projection for CO2 equivalent emissions in Palestine (SP 2020b)

The State of Palestine began to address climate change impact in the last decade and accelerated efforts in the second half of the decade. The EQA and many other non-governmental organizations have integrated climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies, and invested in accumulating knowledge on the pattern of biodiversity loss due to global warming, among other factors. 

The EQA has issued two important documents on climate change and correlating challenges at the Palestinian level. 

The Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (UNDP, 2010) and the Climate Change National Determined Contributions (NDC) concluded that Palestine will be vulnerable to outcomes and implications of climate change: an increase in annual average temperature between 2.2 and 5.1 degrees, a 20% drop in annual rainfall by 2050, land degradation, and desertification.  A report on the National Capacity Development Program (CDP) for climate change mainstreaming related to the Palestinian Authority, this project aims at enhancing capacities of institutions of the Palestinian to mainstream and address the challenges and threats of climate change in several areas of reporting, mitigation and adaptation. 

National Adaptation Plan to Climate Change (EQA 2016): This document included

• a review of historic trends in climate in relation to the State of Palestine
• Identification and prioritization of vulnerable hotspots regions 
• Future climate-scenarios for the SP and future developments required for the State of Palestine’s institutions to be able to participate in climate-modelling research
• Identification and prioritization of adaptation options, including costings
• An outline of the process for future monitoring and evaluation

Palestine's Initial National Communication Report to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): The Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Program of Action for the Palestinian Authority has identified water and food security as the most vulnerable issues in the State of Palestine (UNDP, 2010). Under difficult circumstances that the state of Palestine including political occupation, the Palestinian Authority needs to empower its expertise and capacity at the institutional level in order to address all of the issues that are linked to climate change adaptation and mitigation. It currently suffers from limited capacity, expertise, and a general limited ability to respond to these challenges. The Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) to UNFCCC were finalized in 2017 (see EQA, 2017b and SP 2020c) The delivery of the climate actions described in this NDC will help achieve a number of national development and policy objectives as well reflects the country's vision for climate action and address the political commitment to climate change at a global level. These include improvements in the State’s energy security, with a reduced dependence on imported electricity from Israel and increased energy reserves through development and exploitation of the Gaza Strip’s gas field. Improvements in the Palestinian people’s living conditions, health and environment, through better air quality, less unmanaged waste, increased food production and increased water resources are also important co-benefits. These actions will also support the implementation of sustainable development goals (SDGs). 

Figure National Institutional Framework for Climate Change in Palestine

Eco-friendly practices that contribute to the mitigation to climate change locally include (MA’AN Development Center, 2012) Several reports are issued by UNDP such as Report on National Climate change capacity development program- 2015. The report addresses the National Capacity Development program on climate change (CDB). The CDP contains a competency development program, the accompanying tools and instruments, and the near-, medium- and long-term planning horizon. It also addresses the proposed actions to increase and develop capacities. 

The Initial National Communication Report to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Executive Summary 2016 presents the State of Palestine national circumstances and human-induced emissions by sources, and removals by sinks, of all greenhouse gas (GHG) not controlled by the Montreal Protocol. The state of Palestine is establishing an institutional arrangement for creating and reporting its GHG inventory (GHGI), and the EQA is the assigned entity for GHGI development and Palestinian PCBS to be the GHGI agency. Also, it presents different means and measures to achieve reduction of GHG emissions.

The National Adaptation Plan (INCR 2016). This contains the assessment of historic trends in climate, defining the vulnerabilities, the future climate-scenarios for the State of Palestine, and prioritizing adaptation options. It also includes the future developments required to be able to participate and list future monitoring and evaluation. The plan deals with vulnerability regions. It uses climate-trend analysis to identify multi-year trends in climate parameters, distinguish between natural variability, and show long-term trends resulting from human influence

Figure Institutional arrangements for the GHGI (UNFCCC, 2016)

The legal and regulatory framework for climate change in Palestine (UNDP): This examines the integration of climate change issues in PA legislation. It has assessed the current environmental laws (energy, water, etc) and proposed appropriate amendments to the legislation instruments and measurement to the existing legal framework and regulation. 

Key challenges: 

Given that SP’s share of worldwide greenhouse gas emissions is small, the level of economic growth is low, and it is very vulnerable to climate change impacts, the PA is committed to making a fair contribution to global efforts to reduce emissions consistent with UNFCCC’s objectives. NDC aims to make a quantified contribution to the reduction of emissions despite the country’s challenging political situation. The construction and overcontrol of land and natural resources by the Israeli occupation pose challenges in predicting the effect of climate change on ecosystems and hinder the ability to implement adaptation and mitigation strategies (UNDP, 2010). Also, it has made networking at a national level and sharing information very difficult, affecting the PA’s ability to address climate change challenges. 

The PA’s plans to reduce its CO2 emissions are dependent on international support in the form of finance, capacity building and technology transfer. The NDC report states that mitigation contribution is conditional upon the state independence, and, until then, there are two scenarios:

• Independence scenario–by ending the Israeli occupation, the Government of the State of Palestine achieves independence and is able to exercise full control over its resources.
• Status quo scenario–reflecting a continuation of the Israeli occupation of the State of Palestine. This does not mean that this is an acceptable situation.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) AR5 have developed three future-climate scenarios for the SP that presents all projections considering identification and prioritization of adaptation.

Table: Future-climate scenarios for the State of Palestine (Initial National Communication Report - UNFCCC, 2016)

Conclusions: The status of environment including biodiversity in Palestinian areas in the West Bank is precarious and the local efforts merely stem loss and degradation in some areas. Restoration activities are extremely limited. There will also be future complications of climate change on biodiversity. Measures that can be implemented to meet ABT 15 will be included in the new (2022) NBSAP and include: a) protect and restore native vegetation on vulnerable areas and determine sites for native vegetation, b) prioritize highly degraded ecosystems that provide essential ecosystem services and are critical to ecological connectivity, c) empower sustainable land use by indigenous and local communities, d) enact market instruments that discourage exploitation of ecosystems, e) consider income generation along with restoration activities to make restoration economically viable, g) develop landscape management approaches with stakeholders that encourage large-scale restoration while considering the socioeconomic needs of local communities, h) identify and geospatially map opportunities for restoration, k) identify investments and insurance opportunities for restoration, and l) emphasize restoration efforts in forests that are becoming carbon sources. Climate change adaptation planning has been supported and endorsed by the EQA via a National Adaptation Plan (NAP) which identifies 12 priority thematic areas (EQA 2016). But reviewing actual accomplishments on the ground suggest that Palestine was able to mitigate some decline in habitats but has not engaged in any habitat restoration activities with very few marginal exceptions (e.g. planting wild trees by the MoA in protected areas to cover denuded areas). There is a new project to build protected area network which includes ecosystem resilience and strengthen ecosystem services (2021-2022). 

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Websites

https://www.alhaq.org/cached_uploads/download/alhaq_files/publications/Environmental.Injustice.Report.En.pdf

https://www.alhaq.org/cached_uploads/download/alhaq_files/publications/Briefing.Paper.An.Environmental.Approach.pdf

https://www.alhaq.org/publications/6416.html

https://www.alhaq.org/publications/15261.html

The first and only NBSAP was drafted in 1999; we are currently working on a new strategy which will be published in 2022. The main instrument for implementing the CBD, the new NBSAPs will follow COP decisions, pertaining to thematic areas, cross-cutting issues and stakeholder processes, indicating those areas that Parties have suggested should be included in NBSAPs. The main COP decisions that provide direct guidance for NBSAPs are decision IX/8 and decision X/2. Parties are encouraged to review these decisions for consolidated guidance on the NBSAP process, substance components, support systems, and monitoring and review systems. Palestine was not listed at CBD as having NBSAP (https://www.cbd.int/nbsap/about/latest/) because the NBSAP was developed in 1999 before accession to the treaty. Even though it has been 21 years since NBSAP (1999), the EQA included biodiversity planning in the environmental sector strategies. Since NBSAP (1999) much has changed including new threats to biodiversity, new opportunities, and new and updated methodologies and data that could make for a far more effective NBSAP. The new NBSAP should be revised to be aligned Aichi Targets and With CBD's post 2020 biodiversity framework, Ramsar Convention, World Heritage Convention, CITES, CMS, and Global Assessment of Biodiversity  carried out by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy  Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem  Services (IPBES).” Thus, the national strategy serves the state of Palestine taking into account local needs, international legal (convention) obligations, and actual changes in the past three decades is essential. 

Table Priority Initiatives (Projects) for NBSAPP 1999 and accomplishment summary 2000-2020

Table NBSAPP 1999 objectives, selected agenda items, and adding achievements 2000-2020

The NBSAP was immediately followed with the Palestinian Environmental Strategy (MoEA 2000). After articulating the local situation (environmental status, political, socioeconomic, legal and institutional frameworks, driving forces, and resources). It articulated these targets but without specifics relating to implementation:

1. To achieve a balanced situation in which the Palestinian water rights are effectuated and the total Palestinian water demand is met under the condition that annually the total abstractions (Palestinian and Israeli) from the water resources system do not exceed the natural and artificial recharge of the water resource system.
2. To protect the quality of the water resources in order to be suitable for the desired or designated uses of water. The sustainability is expressed as maximum allowable concentrations of various substances or groups of substances for particular uses of water resources.
3. Utilization of the natural resources is done in a way that is not conflicting with the environmental values that are associated with these resources. The exploitation process itself does not harm the environment or the public health.
4. Abandoned sites are rehabilitated in a sound way from the viewpoint of the environment and landscape.
5. The environmental impacts of socio-economic activities and related land use may not exceed the natural ‘carrying capacity’ of the land and soil.
6. Ambient noise levels should not exceed those levels that are associated with nuisance for the society or the natural environment. These levels are expressed as maximum allowable noise levels and exposure periods for different categories of receptors.”
7. To reverse and prevent pollution, or risk for pollution of the shoreline and the coastal marine environmental to protect the marine ecosystems and public health and to enable a sustainable economic, recreational and touristic development of the area.
8. The sound use and conservation of nature and biodiversity, within the context of a sustainable socio-economic development of the Palestinian areas.
9. To protect and rehabilitate the landscape and aesthetic values of the living and natural environment. 
10. To raise public awareness of landscape value and the importance to maintain and protect it for the future generations of Palestinians.
11. To preserve the rich cultural heritage and historic monuments for the current and future generations and to exploit this heritage for recreational purposes and tourism in a sustainable manner

EQA has published Environment Sector Strategy in 2010 that included a SWOT analysis and identified six national priorities (EQA 2010). There were 48 specific recommendations for interventions listed by order priority for the EQA and 19 ones to be implemented at the general environment sector level (EQA 2010).

Table SOWT analysis (EQA 2010):